Work-Family Conflict and Satisfaction: Does Gender Matters?

Abstract

This article aims to explain the importance of gender in work-family conflict and job satisfaction. Work-family conflict may be impacted by job demands and stress. The conflict between work and family can put a strain on employees internally. Research on work and family conflict began several decades ago, but due to the rise in the number of dual-earning families, it is now more pertinent than ever. The primary goal of this study is to determine the influence of gender on work-family conflict and job satisfaction. The research design for this study involved the quantitative method of convenience sampling and survey questionnaires that were developed based on a thorough and detailed analysis of the relevant literature. The researcher established the significance of gender and its functions in work-family conflict based on the study. Gender has also been found to have an impact on job satisfaction. The study's findings highlight the gender variations in work-family conflict. The distinctive role of gender and its significance in work-family conflict are identified by this study. The study also focuses on the job satisfaction of genders based on the work-family conflict they faced. The implications of this study were discussed.

Keywords: Balance, gender, satisfaction, work-family conflict, work-family work stress

Introduction

In recent years, various terms such as "work-life balance," "work-home interference," "work-family integration," "work-family conflict," "work-family enrichment," and "work-family spillover" have been intensively discussed by academics, politicians, and the public (Carlson et al., 2006; Feierabend et al., 2011; Van Ruysseveldt et al., 2011). The phenomena of work-family conflict, a type of inter-role conflict brought on by somewhat mismatched job and family responsibilities, has received more attention in recent years (Miller et al., 2022).

Balancing work and family responsibilities has received a lot of scholarly attention in recent years. Work and family (non-work) play an important role in most people's adult lives, and both domains are regarded as the backbone of human existence (Md‐Sidin et al., 2010). According to Fagan and Burchell (2002), globalisation, downsizing, and flexible work patterns have resulted in an increase in job demands and pressure, as well as a daily battle to balance work and family commitments. Studies on work-family conflict and its effects have been more relevant in recent years, and it appears that this importance will only increase in the future (Kao et al., 2020).

Byron (2005) stated that the increase in dual-career couples and single-parent households and the decrease in traditional, single-earner families mean that responsibilities for work, housework, and childcare are no longer confined to traditional gender roles. In addition, managing work-family responsibilities is more difficult and challenging in households with a more conventional "husband works, wife stays at home" family unit (Boles et al., 2001; Greenhaus & Powell, 2006). Gill and Davidson (2001) support this statement by saying that men have taken on greater family duties, partly as a result of rising divorce rates that lead to a rise in single parenting. Because of this, most men are starting to feel more stressed out and at odds with one another as they balance their roles as parents and workers (Tennant & Sperry, 2003).

To fulfil this, employees need to find themselves struggling to balance the demands of work and the demands of family. The excessive pressure and scarcity of free time may also adversely affect their ability to deal with their responsibilities. Strong family support at work is associated with lower levels of work-family conflict among employees (Lapierre et al., 2008), which will decrease the levels of job stress and reduce turnover (Bozo et al., 2009). In contrast, high levels of work-family conflict among employees will lead to high levels of job stress and higher turnover rates (Kreiner, 2006).

Generally, work and personal life interface situations have been studied from the perspective of the problems individuals face when trying to find a balance between their work and family lives. For example, individuals have difficulty with time pressures arising due to work and family. Furthermore, strain within either life negatively affects one's work-life experiences. Thus, excessive working hours, workplace stress, and personal obligations can lead to conflicts between work and home life and impair performance or role behaviours in the other domain, according to Greenhaus and Beutell (1985), Carlson (2002).

Therefore, everyone who has a working life must find brilliant ways to combine, balance, and well manage their time to accurately fulfil the demands of their working and private lives. As a person's working life affects their personal life, the reverse can also be true. Based on Eby et al. (2005), both favourable and unfavourable outcomes could result. Guest (2002) and Sturges and Guest (2004) have suggested that the researcher should not limit their attention to work and family-related problems but should also give substantial consideration to other non-work domain issues, such as hobbies and other leisure activities.

Work-family issues are becoming more common and significant, which is consistent with changes in family arrangements and the nature of work (Watson et al., 2003). The rise in women's employment, the number of part-timers and casual workers, the amount of time spent working rather than at home, and recent modifications to industrial relations laws that alter the nature of work are other factors that impact work-family conflict (Baird et al., 2006).

In previous research, as stated by Anderson (2002), Babin and Boles (1996), and Frye and Breaugh (2004), most studies have found a negative relationship between these two variables: work-family conflict (WFC) and job satisfaction. This is also supported by Choi et al. (2013), who found that work-to-family conflict negatively affected job satisfaction. All the current correctional research, with the exception of Lambert et al. (2002) study, indicates a connection between work-family conflict and job satisfaction. A moderating role for gender between work-family conflict and distinct repercussions, however, was not found by any of the meta-analyses that were conducted (Nohe et al., 2015). Using a different perspective to investigate the role of gender and looking at potential mediating factors can produce more fruitful findings and help shed light on work-family conflicts and their repercussions.

Work and family are the two most important roles in a person's life, and it is not surprising that they can cause conflict if combined. Mostly, each individual experiences work and family life (Karatepe, 2010; Netemeyer et al., 2005). According to Boyar et al. (2008) and Kim et al. (2005), it is strongly stated that work-family conflict is influenced by long working hours, duty, and heavy workloads. Brough and O'Driscoll (2005) provided support for this viewpoint, indicating that "a person's capacity to dedicate time and energy to their family life will be reduced if they have to work long hours and face significant job demands" (p. 224). Conversely, individuals won't have as much time to spend with their families. To effectively meet multiple demands in both domains and to conveniently obtain and utilise the necessary resources, it is imperative to achieve a successful balance between the work and family spheres (Grzywacz & Bass, 2003).

According to research, there are two different but related types of role conflict: work-interfering with family (WIF) and family-interfering with work (FIW). Conflict resulting from work obligations interfering with family obligations is known as work interfering with family (WIF). The stress that results when work and family obligations collide is known as family interfering with work (FIW). Both are essentially the outcome of a person's endeavour to satisfy the expectations of the family, work, and home environments in which they are involved. Family interfering with work is the term used to describe the strain that arises when job and family responsibilities interconnect (FIW). Both are the result of an individual's attempt to meet the demands of their home, workplace, and family settings. Role performance in another domain becomes more challenging due to demands from one domain. Individual who experiences higher WFC experiences work in greater number of hours and face greater demands at work, however, work autonomy may lower one's WIF (Allen et al., 2020).

It is supported by Greenhaus and Powell (2003) that work-family conflict occurs when work interferes with competing family activities or when work stress negatively affects behaviour within the family domain. Due to the time, effort, and dedication required for each of these roles—such as worker, husband, and, in many cases, parent—work-family conflict (WFC) arises when an individual must fulfil numerous responsibilities. Overload and interference are the two forms of strain that arise from the combined demands of these roles (Duxbury & Higgins, 1991). When there is too much demand on a person to fulfil several roles effectively, overload results. Interference also arises when competing demands make it impossible to fulfil the criteria of several roles at once.

According to Jain and Nair (2021), contentment is an attitude that stems from a person's unique evaluation of their employment, implying that contentment is more than just sentiments and also represents how one views and evaluates their work. Mugunthan (2013) defined job satisfaction as an employee's attitudes toward their position, the workplace, their compensation, benefits, and other factors. Furthermore, the social sciences believe that an individual's ability to realise their wants, aspirations, values, and beliefs is a necessary condition for overall fulfilment, including job satisfaction (Kuo et al., 2018).

The degree of employee satisfaction with the work environment will mostly determine the achievement of organisational goals and targets (Kaur, 2012). In contrast, an employee who is dissatisfied with his work will feel negatively about it and a satisfied employee will feel positive about his employment (Khalid et al., 2011). According to Abbas et al. (2013), a satisfied employee consistently demonstrates their ability to perform well, but a dissatisfied employee will causes the organisation to lose. All in all, the internal feeling of fulfilment or dissatisfaction regarding one's work is the main emphasis of job satisfaction (Thompson & Phua, 2012). High levels of job satisfaction are produced by favourable experiences such as amiable coworkers, generous pay, understanding managers, and appealing employment (Giannikis & Mihail, 2011). Yee et al. (2010) highlighted out that a person's level of job satisfaction improves with how well their work environment matches their needs, values, or personal traits.

One type of work-family conflict is time-based conflict, or time strain. The higher the work hours and job demands, the more stress and negative effect it has on one's perception of work (Bianchi & Milkie, 2010). For example, Booth and van Ours (2007) found that the level of satisfaction for part-time working women was higher for full-time employed women. It demonstrated that work hours are a highly relevant antecedent of work satisfaction. Satisfied workers will subsequently devote more time to their jobs, engage in work-related activities more passionately, constructively, and successfully, and experience lower employee turnover (Agarwal et al., 2001). As such, organisations need to strive to enhance the levels of job satisfaction among their employees, as this has a positive stimulus effect on the organization's prosperity (Wongsuwan et al., 2023).

A significant factor is gender socialisation, which both directly and indirectly impacts behaviour and helps decide how much men and women internalise traditional conceptions of gender differences (Barnett & Rivers, 2004). Inconsistent findings have been found in several research on how gender differs in juggling work and home obligations (Hill et al., 2010). The desire to pursue careers in traditionally male fields like law and medicine has eliminated gender disparities in this regard (Sax, 2005).

The ways that men and women experience work-family issues varied according to their gender roles (Frone et al., 1992; Gutek et al., 1991). Previous studies have also shown that women are far more likely than men to be involved in work-family disputes (Lundberg, 1996). However, Byron (2005) painted a different image in his meta-analysis of over 60 research. Men and women suffer work-family conflict (WFC) to varying degrees, according to Byron (2005). Contrarily, family-work conflict (FWC) affects women more frequently than it does males. However, compared to working mothers, working fathers reported lower levels of family-work conflict (Hill et al., 2003).

Furthermore, Hochschild and Machung (1989) noted that women appear to be more responsible for adjusting to the demands of both work and family in dual-earner households. There is proof that married women still have to do more childcare and housework than their male spouses (Wiersma, 1994). Furthermore, the researcher asserted that women experience more work-family conflict than males do, citing Cinamon and Rich (2002) as support.

Kinnunen and Mauno (1998), however, provided evidence to the contrary. It was established that in Finland, there is no gender difference in the amounts of family-to-work and work-to-family interference in a sample of working men and women. According to Beutell (2010), who drew support from a recent study, working fathers and moms had similar levels of work-family conflict.

Methodology and Finding

In order to analyse WFC between genders, the statistical population involved 105 employees around the Shah Alam area. Based on the objectives of the study, the sampling size is based on the volunteers of those respondents who were willing to answer the questionnaire and those participants who met some criteria for the study.

See Full Size >

This study's primary goal was to examine the gender-to-WFC model link empirically. The work was influenced by the most integrated model to date, as well as the model presented by Frone et al., 1997. Research indicates that distinct work-family conflict models may be utilised or that certain models may operate differently for men and women. Nevertheless, the majority of research restricts its scope to confirming the existence of gender differences, and very few have concentrated on examining these models (Parasuraman & Greenhaus, 2002). Gender differences should be taken into account when analysing work-family conflict because work and family have historically been associated with specific responsibilities (McElwain et al., 2005). Based on this, a conceptual model was developed to guide the present research (Figure 1). This model was tested in the current study.

Among the 105 respondents, the majority were female, making up 60.0% (n = 63), closely followed by 40.0% (n = 42) of the respondents being male. Regarding equality of variance, since there is no significant difference between gender groups, p =.23, which is more than 0.05, In this condition, we can’t reject the null hypothesis. It means that the variance of two groups in the work-family conflict is equal. Although the mean value of males is slightly higher than females, there is no difference between males and females regarding work-family conflict. Therefore, hypotheses H1a and H1b are rejected.

Regarding equality of variance, since there is no significant difference between gender groups (p =.976), which is more than 0.05, In this condition, we can’t reject the null hypothesis. It means that the variances of two groups for job satisfaction are equal. Although the mean value of males is slightly higher than females, there is no difference between males and females regarding job satisfaction, as this difference is not significant. Therefore, hypothesis H2 is rejected.

Overall, there is a significant positive relationship between independent and dependent variables (r = 0.383, p = 0.00 < 0.05). In the multiple regression analysis (model summary, table 11), the result found that work-family conflict explained 14% (adjusted R square) of the variance associated with job satisfaction. The analysis also showed a significant relationship between work-family conflict and job satisfaction, as indicated by the ANOVA result (table 12) and the F value (F = 17.72, P = 0.00 < 0.05). Additionally, the coefficients result (table 1) showed a significant correlation between work-family conflict and job satisfaction (P = 0.00 < 0.05, beta value -.383). Based on the research results, the null hypothesis H3 is rejected.

Conclusion and Recommendations

This study emphasises the role of gender in the relationship between work and family conflict. The researcher found that the majority of respondents in the study were female (60.0%). Most of the respondents were aged between 25 and 35 years old (54.3%), and most of them were already married (61.9%). In terms of children taken care of, single respondents placed second highest. So they don't have children yet. The highest group in occupation status is permanent (52.4%), while most of the respondents hold diploma qualifications (38.0%).

For research question 1, the researcher found that there is no significant difference between the gender groups as p =.23, which is more than 0.05. Although the mean value of males is slightly higher than females, there is no difference between males and females regarding work-family conflict. Therefore, hypotheses H1a (males facing work-family conflict more than females) and H1b (females facing work-family conflict more than males) are rejected.

Frone (2003) provided support for the above thesis by summarising the lack of significant variations in work-family and family-work conflict levels in various sample instances. Research on the gender disparities in work-family conflict, however, has yielded wildly inconsistent results, and vice versa (Voydanoff, 2002). Men are more likely than women to face work-family conflict, according to certain studies (Duxbury & Higgins, 1991). Work-family conflict affects women more than it does males (Carlson, 2002). Men are more likely than women to face work-family conflict, according to certain studies (Duxbury & Higgins, 1991). Work-family conflict affects women more than it does males (Carlson, 2002). According to Pleck (1977), due of their gender identity (self-concept), men and women are more likely to encounter interference from work to family and from work to family, respectively, and because of this, women are more likely to experience interference from work to family. Research by Ahmad (1996) on eighty-six female researchers and Ahmad (2008) on one hundred professional women revealed that work-family conflict affects married working women in Malaysia. Research by Ahmad (1996) on eighty-six female researchers and Ahmad (2008) on one hundred professional women revealed that work-family conflict affects married working women in Malaysia.

In addition, for the second question, the result found that there is no significant difference between men and women in job satisfaction, as the P value is 0.976, which is more than 0.05. Although the mean for men is higher than for women, there is no difference between men and women regarding job satisfaction. This result is supported by Al-Ajmi (2006), who conducted a study in Kuwait and found that there is no significant difference between genders in job satisfaction as both have the same satisfaction with the job. However, this result is contrary to the other researchers’ study. According to Voydanoff (1980), there are a few differences in the appraisal of job and family characteristics by men and women, while Randy Hodson (1989) and Centers and Bugental (1966) stated that women receive higher job satisfaction than men as women are more interested in different aspects of work than men were.

Based on the third question, there is a significant relationship between work-family conflict and job satisfaction (r = 0.383, p = 0.00  0.05). From the ANOVA result, the analysis showed a significant relationship between work-family conflict and job satisfaction (F = 17.72, P = 0.00  0.05). Additionally, the coefficient result also showed a significant correlation between work-family conflict and job satisfaction (P = 0.00  0.05), and the beta value is -0.383. Based on the research result, hypothesis 3, which is that there is a negative relationship between work-family conflict and job satisfaction, is rejected.

Many researchers have demonstrated a significant negative correlation between work-family conflict and job satisfaction. For example, Ahmad and Omar (2010) stated that among single-mother employees in Malaysia, work-family conflict was negatively associated with job satisfaction. Judge et al. (1994) study on male executives shows that an increase in work-family conflict can lead to reduced job satisfaction.

References

• Abbas, A., Mudassar, M., Gul, A., & Madni, A. (2013). Factors contributing to job satisfaction for workers in Pakistani organization. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 3(1), 525.

• Agarwal, R., De, P., & Ferratt, T. W. (2001). How long will they stay? Predicting an IT professional's preferred employment duration. Proceedings of the 2001 ACM SIGCPR conference on Computer personnel research. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Ahmad, A. (1996). Work-Family Conflict Among Married Professional Women in Malaysia. The Journal of Social Psychology, 136(5), 663-665. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Ahmad, A. (2008). Job, family and individual factors as predictors of work-family conflict. The Journal of Human Resource and Adult Learning, 4(1), 57-65.

• Ahmad, A., & Omar, Z. (2010). Perceived family-supportive work culture, affective commitment and turnover intention of employees. Journal of American Science, 6(12), 839-846.

• Al-Ajmi, R. (2006). The effect of gender on job satisfaction and organizational commitment in Kuwait. International Journal of Management, 23(4), 838.

• Allen, T. D., French, K. A., Dumani, S., & Shockley, K. M. (2020). A cross-national meta-analytic examination of predictors and outcomes associated with work–family conflict. Journal of Applied Psychology, 105(6), 539–576. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Anderson, K. (2002). The useful archive. Learned Publishing, 15(2), 85-89. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Babin, B. J., & Boles, J. S. (1996). The effects of perceived co-worker involvement and supervisor support on service provider role stress, performance and job satisfaction. Journal of Retailing, 72(1), 57–75. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Baird, M., Ellem, B., & Page, A. (2006). Workchoices: Changes and challenges for human resource management. Thomson (Learning Australia).

• Barnett, R., & Rivers, C. (2004). Same difference: How gender myths are hurting our relationships, our children, and our jobs. Basic Books/Hachette Book Group.

• Beutell, N. J. (2010). Work schedule, work schedule control and satisfaction in relation to work-family conflict, work-family synergy, and domain satisfaction. Career Development International, 15(5), 501-518. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Bianchi, S. M., & Milkie, M. A. (2010). Work and family research in the first decade of the 21st century. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72(3), 705–725. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Boles, J. S., Howard, W. G., & Donofrio, H. H. (2001). An investigation into the inter-relationships of work–family conflict, family–work conflict and work satisfaction. Journal of Managerial Issues, 13(3), 376–390.

• Booth, A. L., & van Ours, J. C. (2007). Job Satisfaction and Family Happiness: The Part-Time Work Puzzle. SSRN Electronic Journal. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Boyar, S. L., Maertz, C. P., Jr., Mosley, D. C., Jr., & Carr, J. C. (2008). The impact of work/family demand on work-family conflict. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 23(3), 215–235. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Bozo, Ö., Toksabay, N. E., & Kürüm, O. (2009). Activities of Daily Living, Depression, and Social Support Among Elderly Turkish People. The Journal of Psychology, 143(2), 193-206. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Brough, P., & O'Driscoll, M. (2005). Work-family conflict and stress. In A.-S. G. Antoniou & C. L. Cooper (Eds.), Research companion to organisational health psychology (pp. 346–365). Edward Elgar Publishing. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Byron, K. (2005). A meta-analytic review of work-family conflict and its antecedents. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 67(2), 169–198. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Carlson, A. (2002). Aesthetics and the environment: The appreciation of nature, art and architecture. Routledge.

• Carlson, D. S., Kacmar, K. M., Wayne, J. H., & Grzywacz, J. G. (2006). Measuring the positive side of the work-family interface: Development and validation of a work-family enrichment scale. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 68(1), 131-164. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Centers, R., & Bugental, D. E. (1966). Intrinsic and extrinsic job motivations among different segments of the working population. Journal of Applied Psychology, 50(3), 193–197. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Choi, Y., Kim, Y. S., Kim, S. Y., & Park, I. J. K. (2013). Is Asian American parenting controlling and harsh? Empirical testing of relationships between Korean American and Western parenting measures. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 4(1), 19–29. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Cinamon, R. G., & Rich, Y. (2002). Gender differences in the importance of work and family roles: Implications for work-family conflict. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 47(11-12), 531–541. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Duxbury, L. E., & Higgins, C. A. (1991). Gender differences in work-family conflict. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76(1), 60–74. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Eagly, A. H., & Wood, W. (2012). Social role theory. In P. A. M. Van Lange, A. W. Kruglanski, & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of theories of social psychology (pp. 458–476). Sage Publications Ltd. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Eby, L. T., Casper, W. J., Lockwood, A., Bordeaux, C., & Brinley, A. (2005). Work and family research in IO/OB: Content analysis and review of the literature (1980-2002). Journal of Vocational Behavior, 66(1), 124–197. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Fagan, C., & Burchell, B. (2002). Gender, Jobs and Working Conditions in the European Union.

• Feierabend, A., Mahler, P., & Staffelbach, B. (2011). Are there Spillover Effects of a Family Supportive Work Environment on Employees without Childcare Responsibilities? Management revu, 22(2), 188-209. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Frone, M. R. (2003). Work-family balance. In J. C. Quick & L. E. Tetrick (Eds.), Handbook of occupational health psychology (pp. 143–162). American Psychological Association. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Frone, M. R., Russell, M., & Cooper, M. L. (1992). Antecedents and outcomes of work-family conflict: Testing a model of the work-family interface. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77(1), 65–78. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Frone, M. R., Yardley, J. K., & Markel, K. S. (1997). Developing and Testing an Integrative Model of the Work-Family Interface. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 50(2), 145-167. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Frye, N. K., & Breaugh, J. A. (2004). Family-Friendly Policies, Supervisor Support, Work? Family Conflict, Family? Work Conflict, and Satisfaction: A Test of a Conceptual Model. Journal of Business and Psychology, 19(2), 197-220. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Giannikis, S. K., & Mihail, D. M. (2011). Flexible work arrangements in Greece: a study of employee perceptions. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 22(2), 417-432. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Gill, S., & Davidson, M. J. (2001). Problems and pressures facing lone mothers in management and professional occupations - a pilot study. Women in Management Review, 16(8), 383-399. DOI: 10.1108/eum0000000006290

• Greenhaus, J. H., & Beutell, N. J. (1985). Sources of Conflict between Work and Family Roles. The Academy of Management Review, 10(1), 76. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Greenhaus, J. H., & Powell, G. N. (2003). When work and family collide: Deciding between competing role demands. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 90(2), 291–303. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Greenhaus, J. H., & Powell, G. N. (2006). When work and family are allies: A theory of work-family enrichment. The Academy of Management Review, 31(1), 72–92. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Grzywacz, J. G., & Bass, B. L. (2003). Work, family, and mental health: Testing different models of work-family fit. Journal of Marriage and Family, 65(1), 248–262. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Guest, D. E. (2002). Perspectives on the study of work-life balance. Social Science Information, 41(2), 255–279. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Guest, D. E. (2004). The Psychology of the Employment Relationship: An Analysis Based on the Psychological Contract. Applied Psychology, 53(4), 541-555. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Gutek, B. A., Searle, S., & Klepa, L. (1991). Rational versus gender role explanations for work^family conflict. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76(4), 560-568. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Hill, E. J., Erickson, J. J., Holmes, E. K., & Ferris, M. (2010). Workplace flexibility, work hours, and work-life conflict: Finding an extra day or two. Journal of Family Psychology, 24(3), 349–358. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Hill, E., Hawkins, A., Märtinson, V., & Ferris, M. (2003). Studying "Working Fathers": Comparing Fathers' and Mothers' Work-Family Conflict, Fit, and Adaptive Strategies in a Global High-Tech Company. Fathering: A Journal of Theory, Research, and Practice about Men as Fathers, 1(3), 239-261. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Hochschild, A. R., & Machung, A. (1989). The second shift. Avon.

• Hodson, R. (1989). Gender differences in job satisfaction: Why aren't women more dissatisfied? The Sociological Quarterly, 30(3), 385–399. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Jain, S., & Nair, S. K. (2021). Integrating work-family conflict and enrichment: understanding the moderating role of demographic variables. International Journal of Organizational Analysis, 29(5), 1172-1198. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Judge, T. A., Boudreau, J. W., & Bretz, R. D. (1994). Job and life attitudes of male executives. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79(5), 767–782. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Kao, K.-Y., Chi, N.-W., Thomas, C. L., Lee, H.-T., & Wang, Y.-F. (2020). Linking ICT Availability Demands to Burnout and Work-Family Conflict: The Roles of Workplace Telepressure and Dispositional Self-Regulation. The Journal of Psychology, 154(5), 325-345. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Karatepe, D. O. M. (2010). The effect of positive and negative work-family interaction on exhaustion: does work social support make a difference? International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 22(6). DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Kaur, T. (2012). Job satisfaction among nurses: a comparative study of nurses employed in government and private hospitals. J. Appl. Manag. Comput. Sci., 1, 1.

• Khalid, S., Zohaib Irshad, M., & Mahmood, B. (2011). Job Satisfaction among Academic Staff: A Comparative Analysis between Public and Private Sector Universities of Punjab, Pakistan. International Journal of Business and Management, 7(1). DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Kim, W. G., Leong, J. K., & Lee, Y.-K. (2005). Effect of service orientation on job satisfaction, organisational commitment, and intention of leaving in a casual dining chain restaurant. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 24(2), 171–193. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Kinnunen, U., & Mauno, S. (1998). Antecedents and outcomes of work–family conflict among employed women and men in Finland. Human Relations, 51(2), 157–177. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Kreiner, G. E. (2006). Consequences of work-home segmentation or integration: a person-environment fit perspective. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 27(4), 485-507. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Kuo, P. X., Volling, B. L., & Gonzalez, R. (2018). Gender role beliefs, work–family conflict, and father involvement after the birth of a second child. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 19(2), 243–256. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Lambert, E. G., Hogan, N. L., & Barton, S. M. (2002). The impact of work-family conflict on correctional staff job satisfaction: An exploratory study. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 27(1), 35-52. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Lapierre, L. M., Spector, P. E., Allen, T. D., Poelmans, S., Cooper, C. L., O'Driscoll, M. P., Sanchez, J. I., Brough, P., & Kinnunen, U. (2008). Family-supportive organization perceptions, multiple dimensions of work-family conflict, and employee satisfaction: A test of model across five samples. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 73(1), 92-106. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Lundberg, U. (1996). Influence of paid and unpaid work on psychophysiological stress responses of men and women. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 1(2), 117–130. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Lyu, X., & Fan, Y. (2022). Research on the relationship of work family conflict, work engagement and job crafting: A gender perspective. Current Psychology, 41(4), 1767-1777. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• McElwain, A. K., Korabik, K., & Rosin, H. M. (2005). An examination of gender differences in work-family conflict. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science / Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement, 37(4), 283-298. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Md-Sidin, S., Sambasivan, M., & Ismail, I. (2010). Relationship between work-family conflict and quality of life: An investigation into the role of social support. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 25(1), 58-81. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Miller, B. K., Wan, M., Carlson, D., Kacmar, K. M., & Thompson, M. (2022). Antecedents and outcomes of work-family conflict: A mega-meta path analysis. PLOS ONE, 17(2), e0263631. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0263631

• Mugunthan, S. (2013). A study of work-family conflict and job satisfaction. International Journal of Social Science & Interdisciplinary Research, 2(7), 1-12.

• Netemeyer, R. G., Maxham, J. G., III, & Pullig, C. (2005). Conflicts in the Work-Family Interface: Links to Job Stress, Customer Service Employee Performance, and Customer Purchase Intent. Journal of Marketing, 69(2), 130-143. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Nohe, C., Meier, L. L., Sonntag, K., & Michel, A. (2015). The chicken or the egg? A meta-analysis of panel studies of the relationship between work-family conflict and strain. Journal of Applied Psychology, 100(2), 522-536. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Parasuraman, S., & Greenhaus, J. H. (2002). Toward reducing some critical gaps in work-family research. Human Resource Management Review, 12(3), 299–312. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Pleck, J. H. (1977). The work-family role system. Social Problems, 24(4), 417–427. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Righetti, F., Sakaluk, J. K., Faure, R., & Impett, E. A. (2020). The link between sacrifice and relational and personal well-being: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 146(10), 900–921. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Sax, L. (2005). Why gender matters: What parents and teachers need to know about the emerging science of sex differences. Doubleday, New York.

• Shockley, K. M., Shen, W., DeNunzio, M. M., Arvan, M. L., & Knudsen, E. A. (2017). Disentangling the relationship between gender and work-family conflict: An integration of theoretical perspectives using meta-analytic methods. Journal of Applied Psychology, 102(12), 1601-1635. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Tennant, G. P., & Sperry, L. (2003). Work-Family Balance: Counseling Strategies to Optimize Health. The Family Journal, 11(4), 404-408. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Thompson, E. R., & Phua, F. T. T. (2012). A Brief Index of Affective Job Satisfaction. Group & Organization Management, 37(3), 275-307. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Van Ruysseveldt, J., Verboon, P., & Smulders, P. (2011). Job resources and emotional exhaustion: The mediating role of learning opportunities. Work & Stress, 25(3), 205-223. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Voydanoff, P. (1980). Perceived job characteristics and job satisfaction among men and women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 5(2), 177–185. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Voydanoff, P. (2002). Linkages between the work-family interface and work, family, and individual outcomes: An integrative model. Journal of Family Issues, 23(1), 138–164. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Watson, I., Buchanan, J., Campbell, I., & Briggs, C. (2003). Fragmented futures: New challenges in working life. Annandale: Federation Press.

• Wiersma, U. J. (1994). A Taxonomy of Behavioral Strategies for Coping with Work-Home Role Conflict. Human Relations, 47(2), 211-221. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Wongsuwan, N., Phanniphong, K., & Na-Nan, K. (2023). How Job Stress Influences Organisational Commitment: Do Positive Thinking and Job Satisfaction Matter? Sustainability, 15(4), 3015. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Woodruffe, C. (2006). The crucial importance of employee engagement. Human Resource Management International Digest, 14(1), 3-5. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref

• Yee, R. W. Y., Yeung, A. C. L., & Edwin Cheng, T. C. (2010). An empirical study of employee loyalty, service quality and firm performance in the service industry. International Journal of Production Economics, 124(1), 109-120. DOI:

  Google Scholar

  Crossref