An Investigation Of Hand-Eye Coordination, Attention, Balance And Motor Skill In School Children

Abstract

The purpose of the present study was to examine the hand-eye coordination, attention, balance and motor skill differences in school children aged 9-10 in terms of gender. A total of 38 children, 21 boys with an average age of 9.9 ± 0.41 years and 17 girls with a mean age of 9.9 ± 0.26 years, participated in the study. Participants performed Two-Arm Coordination Test for hand-eye coordination, Cognitrone for attention, Flamingo-balance test for balance and ball throw test for motor skills. Statistical analyses revealed no significant differences in hand eye-coordination overall scores between boys and girls (p>.05). In attention overall scores, boys had higher scores than girls, but this difference was not statistically significant (p>.05). The balance test scores also revealed no significant difference between girls and boys (p>.05). Boys’ motor skill test scores were higher than that of the girls but again this difference was not statistically significant (t=1.20, p=.24). As a result, it can be said that there is no gender difference in hand-eye coordination, attention, balance and motor skill variables among 9-10-year-old children. Plans can be made with mixed groups in the work to be done on this age group. It is thought that concerted coordination, balance, attention and motor skills training may have a positive effect on this age group in both genders.

Keywords: Coordinationmotor skillattentionbalance

Introduction

Coordination is the ability to make different movements, suitable for the purpose and compatible with each other. In other words, it is a term that defines the purposeful movement in which the skeletal muscles and the central nervous system work in harmony (Muratlı, 2003). Coordination can improve difficult movements in a short time and enable appropriate reactions in situations; watch and perform each movement correctly and with the desired force (Albay et al., 2008).

Coordination with sportive meaning is a nervous force of the organism. Coordination is applied during purposeful, compatible, motivated and involuntary movements (Yıldız, 2007). Motor coordination involves the harmonization of nerve and musculoskeletal systems, resulting in a fast, correct, and balanced motor response assessed by hand-eye or foot-eye coordination measurements (Corbin et al., 2000; Lopes et al., 2012).

Visual motor coordination is defined as receiving visual stimuli and generating appropriate motor answers with mind-body coordination. This is known as eye-hand coordination. The visual-motor coordination skills include: walking, running, jumping, climbing, cooking, dressing, undressing, buttoning, washing hands and face, brushing teeth, cycling, driving, using computer, coloring, reading-writing and using a pair of scissors. In addition, they play a significant role in self-sufficiency and successful school and social life. The development of visual motor coordination in children starts with directing their focus towards various objects within their visual field and using their body and hands (Ercan et al., 2011).

Balance is the ability to maintain a posture, to adapt quickly to postural changes or to move through a sequence of postures, without falling, and constitutes an integral and inevitable component of most movement activities (Burton & Davis, 1992; Kitamura & Matsunaga, 1990). Static balance is the ability of the body to maintain a desired posture in a stationary position, while dynamic balance implies changes in posture (Tsai et al., 2008).

Balance and coordination are the most important steps to complete the basic development process and to ensure that the body control is achieved as required. The development of static balance is a basic characteristic of normal motor development. Most of the developmental motor tests include a measure of static balance (Geuze, 2003).

Attention is one of the most important mental processes for the growth of an individual's knowledge. Attention enables the individual to select various sensory stimuli to acquire skills and to form appropriate behavioural habits. Attention allows the individual to adapt to his/her environment (Hijazi, 2013).

Previous literature has found that in children younger than 10 years, there was no gender difference in terms of physical performance (Thomas & French, 1995; Erikoğlu et al., 2009), and attention (Karaduman, 2004) while some studies indicated that there was a difference in balance (Junaid, & Fellowes, 2006; Holm, & Vøllestad, 2008; Jiang et al., 2018), other motor abilities (Plimpton, & Regimbal, 1992; Janković, 2014).

Problem Statement

There is scarce information on gender differences in hand-eye coordination, attention, balance, and motor skills among 9-10 year olds and this study will provide necessary data for physical educators to plan suitable activities to address this age group.

Research Question

This study aimed to identify differences if any between boys and girls in hand-eye coordination, attention, balance, and motor skills

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the present study was to examine the hand-eye coordination, attention, balance and motor skill differences in school children aged 9-10 in terms of gender so that Physical Educators will be able to consider planning education programs specifically to address gender differences.

Research Methods

Findings

The age of the boys participating in the study was 9.91 ± 0.42 yr, the height was 136.96 ± 5.96 cm, the weight was 35.86 ± 7.90 kg and the body mass index was 19.23 ± 3.72 kg/m2. The age of the girls was also found to be 9.94 ± 0.34 yr, the height was 139.02 ± 5.38 cm, the weight was 36.53 ± 9.77 and the body mass index was 18.01 ± 2.45 kg/m2, respectively. There was no significant difference between the variables in terms of gender (p> 0.05). Ages of boys and girls were similar. There were no significant differences in weight, height and BMI between the boys and girls (p>.05).

Table 02 shows the mean and standard deviation values for the error percentage averages of the hand-eye coordination variables of the boys and girls participating in the study.

Statistical analyses revealed no significant differences in hand eye-coordination overall scores between boys and girls (Z=-,10, p=.92). In attention overall scores, boys (69.52±18.71) had higher scores than girls (67.79±16.46) but this difference was not statistically significant (t=.30, p=.77). When the balance test scores were examined, no significant difference between girls and boys (t=.57, p=.57) was detected. Girls (17.82±4.17) had smaller number of falls than the boys (18.71±5.26).

Motor skill test scores of boys (14.67±3.54) was higher than the girls (13.41±2.76) but this difference was not statistically significant (t=1.20, p=.24).

Conclusion

The present study examined hand-eye coordination, attention, balance and motor skill variables, on a sample with no significant difference in age, height, weight and BMI variables between boys and girls (p>.05).

Erikoğlu et al. (2009) did not find a significant difference in weight and height variables between 7 and 8 years old boys. Lopes et al. (2012) found no significant difference in BMI between boys and girls in the study of 7175 children aged 6-14 years. These results are similar to our findings.

This study found that boys and girls had similar hand-eye coordination overall scores, and there was no significant difference found in terms of gender (p> .05).

While there is no significant difference between the genders in the hand-eye coordination variable in our study, it must be stated that the boys’ scores were better than the girls’. When the overall attention scores were examined, no significant difference was found in terms of gender (p> .05). When balance variables were examined, there was no significant difference in terms of gender, but it was observed that girls made fewer mistakes (p> 0.05). Erikoğlu et al. (2009) stated that there is no difference between the genders in the balance variable according to gender and age groups in children aged 7-12 years.

The present study found that motor skills of boys and girls were similar as no significant differences (p> .05) were detected.

In previous studies, gender differences in motor abilities and performance in this age group were not clear. Some studies stated that there were genders differences (Karaduman, 2004; Junaid & Fellowes, 2006), others revealed that there was no difference (Plimpton & Regimbal, 1992; Junaid & Fellowes, 2006; Holm & Vøllestad, 2008; Janković, 2014; Jiang et al., 2018). In our study, boys had better scores in hand-eye coordination, attention and motor skills while girls had better scores in the balance test. As a result of present study, it is suggested that more studies on gender differences in hand-eye coordination, attention, balance and motor skill should be conducted.

The lack of gender differences in coordination, balance, attention and motor skills in 9-10 years old school children may be due to relatively slower growth and development characteristics of this age group.

The main limitations of present study was sample size. In future studies, larger sample sizes should be considered. Additionally, in the present study social, environmental and cultural backgrounds of participants were not controlled.

Implications

Although the results of this study show a lack of gender differences in coordination, attention, balance and motors skills, physical education teachers, coaches and researchers should still be aware of gender differences (boys outperformed the girls in all the tests except balance) when planning programs to develop the motor skills of children aged nine and ten years of age. This study may provide essential information to plan physical education programs for this particular age group, as coordination, balance, attention and motor skills training may have a positive effect on this age group in both genders. Furthermore, this age group is old enough to be oriented towards sport performance so it is imperative that activities to develop motor skills are emphasized in physical education programs.

References

• Albay, M., Tutkun, E., Ağaoğlu, Y. S., Canikli, A. And Albay, F. (2008). Examination of Some Motoric and Anthropometric Characteristics of Handball, Volleyball and Football University Teams. Sportmetere Physical Education and Sport Sciences Journal, 6(1), 13-20. (Hentbol, Voleybol ve Futbol Üniversite Takımlarının Bazı Motorik ve Antropometrik Özelliklerinin İncelenmesi. Spormetre Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Bilimleri Dergisi)
• Burton, A.W. & Davis, W.E. (1992). Optimizing the Involvement and Performance of Children with Physical Impairments in Movement Activities. Pediatrics Exercise Science, 4(3), 236-248.
• Corbin, C.B., Pangrazi, R.P., & Franks, B.D. (2000). Definitions: Health, Fitness, And Physical Activity. Pres. Counc. Phys. Fit. Sports Res. Dig, 3, 1–11.
• Deforche, B., Lefevre, J., De, B., Hills, I., Duquet, A.P.W., & Bouckaert, J. (2003). Physical Fitness and Physical Activity In Obese And Nonobese Flemish Youth. Obes. Res., 11, 434–441.
• Ercan, Z. G., Ahmetoglu, E., & Aral, N. (2011). Investigating the Visual-Motor Integration Skills of 60-72-Month-Old Children at High and Low Socio-Economic Status as Regard the Age Factor. International Education Studies, 4(3), 100-104.
• Erikoğlu, G.H., Özkamçı, N., Golmoghani, Suveren C., Tot, T., Şahin, N., Selçuk, Z., Zorba, E., & Güzel, A. (2009). Evaluation of Performance Parameters of Eurofit Test Battery by Gender and Age Groups in Children aged 7-12 years. Gazi Journal of Physical Education and Sport Sciences (7–12 Yaş Çocuklarda Cinsiyet Ve Yaş Gruplarina Göre Eurofit Test Bataryasi Ile Performans Parametrelerinin Değerlendirilmesi, Gazi Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Bilimleri Dergisi) 13(4), 49-64.
• Geuze, R.H. (2003). Static Balance aAnd Developmental Coordination Disorder. Human Movement Science, 22(4–5), 527-548.
• Green, H.J. (1996). Mechanisms of Muscle Fatigue in Intense Exercise. Journal of Sports Sciences, 15, 247-256.
• Helge, E.W., Aagaard, P., Jakobsen, M.D., … Krustrup, P. (2010). Recreational Football Training Decreases Risk Factors for Bone Fractures in Untrained Premenopausal Women. Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports 20(Suppl 1), 31–39.
• Hijazi, M.M.K. (2013). Attention, Visual Perception and Their Relationship to Sport Performance in Fencing, Journal of Human Kinetics 39, 195-201. DOI: 10.2478/hukin-2013-0082.
• Holm, I., & Vøllestad, N. (2008). Significant effect of gender on hamstring-to-quadriceps strength ratio and static balance in prepubescent children from 7 to 12 years of age. The American Journal Of Sports Medicine, 36(10), 2007-2013. doi:10.1177/0363546508317963.
• Janković, M. (2014). Meta-analysis of Quantitative Differences of Anthropometric Characteristics and Motor Abilities of Children aged 6 and 7 years. / Metaanalyse Quantitativer Unterschied Zwischen Anthropometrische Eigenschaften und Motorischen Fahigkeiten von Kindern im Alter Von 6 und 7 Jahren. Physical Culture / Fizicka Kultura, 68(1), 5-12.
• Jiang, G., Jiao, X., Wu, S., ... Wang, H. (2018). Balance, Proprioception, and Gross Motor Development of Chinese Children Aged 3 to 6 Years. Journal Of Motor Behavior, 50(3),343-352. doi:10.1080/00222895.2017.1363694.
• Junaid, K. A., & Fellowes, S. (2006). Gender Differences in the Attainment of Motor Skills on the Movement Assessment Battery for Children. Physical & Occupational Therapy In Pediatrics, 26(1/2), 5-11. doi:10.1 300/J006v26n0 I̱02
• Karaduman, B., D., 2004, The Effect of Attention Training Program on Fourth And Fifth Grade Primary School Students Attention, Self Concept and Achievement Levels (Dikkat Toplama Eğitim Programının İlköğretim 4. ve 5. Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Dikkat Toplama Düzeyi, Benlik Algısı ve Başarı Düzeylerine Etkisi,) Ankara University, Educational Sciences Institutions, Unpublished Doctorate Dissertation. Retrieved from https://tez.yok.gov.tr/UlusalTezMerkezi
• Kitamura, F. & Matsunaga, K. (1990). Field Dependence and Body Balance. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 71,723-734.
• Lopes, V.P., Stodden, D.F., Bianchi, M.M., Maia, J.A.R., & Rodrigues, L.P. (2012). Correlation Between BMI and Motor Coordination In Children. J. Sci. Med. Sport, 15, 38–43.
• Muratlı, S. (2003). Child and Sports Through Training Science Approach (Antrenman Bilimi Yaklaşımıyla Çocuk ve Spor), Nobel Academic Publishing, Ankara.
• Özer, K. (1993). Anthropometri and Morphological Planning in Sport (Antropometri ve Sporda Morfolojik Planlama), İstanbul, S: 41.
• Özer, D., Özer, K. (2004). Motor Development in Children (Çocuklarda Motor Gelisim, Nobel Yayın Dagıtım), Nobel Academic Publishing, Ankara.
• Plimpton, C., & Regimbal, C. (1992). Differences in motor proficiency according to gender and race. / Differences dans l ' aisance motrice dues au sexe et a la race. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 74(2), 399-402.
• Psikotek Consulting (2012), Cognitrone Test Structure and Sample Reports, Schuhfried GmbH
• Seferoglu, F., Erman, K. A., Sahan, A., & Toktas, N. (2012). The effect of N-3 LC-PUFA supplementation on tennis skill acquisition in 10-12-year-old girls. Biology of Sport, 29(3), 241-246. doi:10.5604/20831862.1003450.
• Sundstrup, E., M. D. Jakobsen, J. L. Andersen, M. B. Randers, J. Petersen, C. Suetta, P. Aagaard, and P. Krustrup (2010). Muscle Function and Postural Balance In Lifelong Trained Male Footballers Compared With Sedentary Elderly Men And Youngsters. Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports 20(Suppl.1), 90–97
• Tsai, C., Wu, S.K. & Huang, C. (2008) Static balance in children with developmental disorder. Human Movement Science 27(1), 142-153
• Yıldız, H. (2007). The Impact of Explosive Power Training on Some Motoric Features of 12-14 years old Table Tennis Players (Çabuk Kuvvet Çalışmalarının 12-14 Yaş Grubu Masa Tenisçilerden Bazı Motorik Özelliklerine Etkisi Unpublished Dissertation). Sakarya University Social Sciences Institution, Sakarya.