Nominal Composites In Chechen And Russian Languages Of Different Structure

Abstract

This study examines semantics, functioning and formation of compound words in the system of the Chechen language and their role in the processes of conceptualization of extralinguistic reality, the classification of composite word-formation units according to the criteria and features adopted in modern word formation. The system of synchronous word formation is a complex hierarchical organization formed by oppositions of different units and structures, among which an important place is occupied by complex units that implement system relations: word-formation type, word-formation paradigm, word-formation category. This work is devoted to a systematic description of structural-semantic relations in word formation. The article provides a critical review of the main provisions in the interpretation of complex formations in Russian and Caucasian linguistics; the national-linguistic feature of the identification of a compound word in the Nakh languages is revealed; the historical path of development of complex formations in the Nakh language is traced in accordance with the principle to study the facts of the language in close connection with the history of society, with the history of the people to whom the studied language belongs. The article attempts to determine the place of word formation in the word-formation system in the Caucasian languages, to identify and describe word-formation models for the Nakh languages in a comparative-typological plan, to characterize them in terms of productivity, frequency; theoretically comprehend the transitional phenomena between word formation and related phenomena (affixation).

Keywords: Compound words, languages with different structures, national-linguistic features

Introduction

Nominations in typologically distant languages have both general and particular features.

Researchers have different points of view about the nature of compound words. Sometimes they do not coincide or are diametrically opposed. But the fact remains obvious that, being a successful means of compressing semantic and syntactic information into the most compact form, a complex word especially clearly shows the ambiguity of the relationship of multi-level units.

A complex word, being a successful means of compressing semantic and syntactic information into the most compact form, especially vividly shows the complexity of the relationship of multi-level units.

Complex words that arise in the language system are immediately summed up in the language for certain parts of speech. Among the parts of speech, in turn, there is a different prevalence of compound words in different styles of language. The analysis of complex words in N. Dmitrieva's book (1960) allows us to conclude that in the style of scientific presentation in the system of the Russian language, adjectives that make up 58 percent are in the first place in terms of frequency of use, nouns that make up 40 percent are in the second place, in the third place – taxes amounting to 2 percent. As for complex words-verbs, they are not in Dmitrieva's book at all. Therefore, one cannot disagree with Academician Vinogradov, who argues that in modern Russian it is possible to speak mainly only about nominal word composition (Dmitrieva, 1960). In the general literary language, they are used less often than other parts of speech. A significant part of them is tracing papers from Greek.

The peculiar arrangement of a complex word in the general system of the language (between morphology and syntax, grammar and vocabulary, speech use and language system) determines the difficulties that arise when determining the status of a complex word.

In modern Nakh and Caucasian languages in general, word composition is, according to many researchers, the main way of word formation of the name and verb. But, asserting that word formation is characterized by the following main ways: basic structure in the name and verb, suffixation exclusively in the name and prefix only in the verb (Musaev, 2002), we must keep in mind that the boundaries of this method are wider, include other parts of speech.

New nouns in the past most often arose by adding the bases of two or more nouns, in which the first component is connected to the second by the type of a subordinate or subordinate connection, while often the indicators of the subordinate connection themselves are lost, dropped out: –.

Problem Statement

  • to identify the national-linguistic feature of the identification of a complex word in different structural languages;
  • to analyze the classifications of complex formations proposed in linguistics and determine the optimal classification option for Nakh composites;
  • to trace the historical ways of development of complex formations in the Nakh language in accordance with the principle to study the facts of the language in inseparable connection with the history of society, with the history of the people to whom the language belongs;
  • to determine the place of the word structure in the system of word formation in the Caucasian languages, to identify and, as far as possible, to describe in comparative and typological terms the word structure models for the Nakh languages, to characterize them in terms of productivity, frequency;
  • to theoretically comprehend the transitional phenomena between word composition and related phenomena (affixation);
  • to describe the semantics of the composites of the Nakh languages in the light of the latest linguistic theories (onomasiological approach) and present complex words as units of nomination;
  • to trace the differences in the nature of the connection of the general semantics of compound words with the meanings of their components, to note cases of changes in the meanings of additions, the acquisition of polysemy by them, etc.;
  • to investigate the ways of forming the semantic content of composites and to classify them in accordance with the type of semantic structure.

Research Questions

In literary languages (Chechen and Ingush), according to Desheriev (1963), Chokaev (1970) and some other authors, the method of word basis formation is widely combined with affixation. At the same time, it is argued that the word basis formation is combined not only with suffixation, but also with the prefix-suffix method.

Prefixes are class indicators in all Nakh languages (functioning and fossilized):; there are no other prefixes (native or borrowed) in the proper sense of the word in modern Chechen and Ingush languages.

However, it should be noted that neither in this nor in other cases is it necessary to speak about the prefix-suffix method of word formation in Chechen and other Nakh languages.

In the examples we have a combination of two words – word forms, each of which before this connection already had the corresponding structure: there are two components in the word– and, and the second component already contained a prefixed class indicator before the formation of a complex word. Whether the given composite is an example of a combination of a word formation with an affixation (suffixation) is a question for scientific polemics (Suleibanova, 2010).

We should note that according to Yanko-Trinitskaya (2001), there are relatively few complex verbs in Russian, so the method of formation of complex words can mainly be related to nominal word production.

Nominal composites in the compared languages make up a large category of complex nouns. The components can be nouns, adjectives, numerals, adverbs, verbs, and verbal forms.

The formation of whole-formed compound words with a single inflection occurs in the modern Russian language in the field of names quite dynamically.

According to the method of formation, the composites of the subordinate model in the Chechen language are divided into formed by the addition of nouns by the method of adjunction, i.e., a simple addition of two names, and formed by the addition of names by the method of control.

The merged words of the subordinate model, formed by the method of adjunction, are a fusion, each component of which retains an independent meaning stressed on the second basis.

In the different-structured Chechen and Russian languages, the type of addition of the following structural types is very productive: noun+ noun домохозяйка – housewife, Chechen: х1усамнана; adjective+ noun: Russian: правосудие – justice, Chechen: – black sheep; numeral+ noun Russian: двоевластие – dual power, Chechen:(Suleibanova, 2010).

Let us look at each of them in more detail.

The word-formation type corresponding to the NOUN + NOUN model

Russian: благосостояние – welfare, хлебопекарня – bakery, viability; Chechen: ненаваша – uncle, вешик1ант – brother’s son, юьртабахам – agricultural industry.

The supporting components in the form of root morphemes are found only in the Russian addition:, etc., where -o- and -e- are connecting vowels. To express the derivational meaning of a derivative in words of this type, such means as the order of the parts of a complex word, truncation of the generating base (or bases), a change in the paradigm of inflection, a single accent are used. This model is not typical for the Nakh languages.

In the Nakh composites, the first components may have case inflections of indirect steps, for example, Chechen хинбад, вешик1ант, ненаваша (-н-, -и-, -а-), Chechen ц1улласара – willow rod, 1аьвла1аж – apple of winter variety, ц1улла=дечиг – willow (-л-), etc. Depending on the given linguistic fact, i.e., on the formality or non-formality of the first component, composites, suffixal and suffixal, in the Nakh word structure are divided into formalized and unformed.

The following models are typical:

a) suffixless ways of forming compound words, which characteristic of nouns and adjectives. In the Russian language, their difference from affixal methods is that the derived words obtained with their help do not have categorical, classifying meanings (the carriers of which are affixes) that distinguish them from the generating words. The meaning of the derivative consists of the meanings of the generating words (Zemskaya, 1973). However, the derivational meaning of compound words is not reduced to combining the lexical meanings of the bases from which these words are composed in one way or another (Lopatin & Ulukhanov, 1963). Usually a derived word is not a simple sum of the meanings of the generating bases, but contains something peculiar – a certain generalization of the meanings of the latter, sometimes there is some element of terminologization in it. In the Chechen language, the suffixal additions in their basic typical features do not differ in principle from the Russian suffixal compound nouns:, etc. At the same time, it should be emphasized that complex words formed in this way often have a different class affiliation that does not coincide with the grammatical class of the dominant component or both components. Thus, includes components related respectively to the 1st () and 2nd () classes ( and), and the compound noun belongs to the d-b class, which Timaev (2007) distinguishes separately from the main system of grammatical classes as. In addition, such composites have different signs of inflection in the sense that in some both components change ( –), in others only the second component ().

b) Suffix additions.

Addition in combination with suffixation is used to produce nouns, the second component of which is the basis of a verb or noun. A complex word can have the meaning of a person, an object, an abstract concept: Chechen – farmer, – animal breeder, – military-bound, – virginity, – labor, – shepherding, – non-chernozem, – the role of a housewife; Russian,,,, etc.

The supporting bases can have the meaning of an independent word: Chechen ( – motherhood), ( – shepherding), ( – courage); Russian, etc. The suffix of the second component of the compound does not appear in the process of forming a compound word; it usually enters this component before the word-formation process. From words of this type, complex suffixal names differ: chech. – military-bound, – farmer, – animal breeder, ky – labor, – longing; Russian, etc., in which the suffix in the second component of addition appears in the process of forming a compound word (Suleibanova, 2008).

The first components of additions in the Nakh languages can be used both in the form of a pure base and with case formants.

Structural type ADJECTIVE+NOUN

In the Nakh and foreign languages, the type of addition of an adjective with a noun is also very productive. As the first components in additions of this type, qualitative adjectives are most often used, for example: Chechen – rye, black wheat, – apple variety, sweet apple; English + > –, + > –; Russian,, etc.

Relative adjectives can also be used as the first component: Chechen – rawhide shoes ( – made of rawhide + – shoes; – wine vinegar ( – wine + – vinegar); – iron bed – made of iron + – bed); – blackberry", – braids + – berry).

Composites of this type are structurally full–complex, which is due to the peculiarity of the Nakh qualitative adjective – definition, which in its initial form lacks a material indicator of agreement with the definition – noun, although there are some cases when the first components – adjectives (qualitative) are subject to truncation of endings (), etc. (Chokaev, 1970).

In the Russian language, the peculiarity of the use of adjective bases in word production is that in a whole number of word-formation types, the derived word includes only an abbreviated base, devoid of a suffix (Bakina, 1968). The truncation of the bases is a phenomenon that serves one purpose: to adapt the generating base to the creation of a derived word (Zemskaya, 1973).

As already mentioned, in the Nakh languages, the composites of the models under consideration go back to phrases like, where the first component is expressed by a qualitative or relative adjective.

The bases of the first components – adjectives often appear in the Nakhi languages in a modified form, with the palatal vowels уь, аь in the bases ( – black, – sour, – iron, – made of rawhide), which arose in the Nakhi languages after the collapse The foundations of the Kazakh language as a result of phonetic changes in the formation of word forms and, less often, new words (Desheriev, 1963).

The second component (the supporting basis) in the considered composites is the nominal basis (noun or verbal substantive form:, etc.).

In modern Russian, the structural type "adjective + noun" is characterized by the fact that the first component also has the semantics of definition (witty, oblique, etc.). The bases can be nominal () and glaucous (, etc.) (Ryashentsev, 1969).

In words with a verb basis, suffixes are possible: -и(е), ени(е) (живорождение, нововведение); -л- (старожил); -k (a): сладкоежка.

This group of words in the matched languages is especially productive. The formation of complex words in it occurs in two ways:

a) the first component is attached to the second, which already has a suffix design: Chechen – deprivation, – false scientist, – perjury, Russiannew building,deepwater, innovation –sweet tooth –, etc.

b) complex words are formed by simultaneous addition of the second component and the suffix to the first component: Chechen – offense, – sadness, longing, – party; Russian – shortwave,farsightedness, etc.

It should be noted that in many cases it is very difficult to establish the order of formation of a complex word, the sequence of addition of morphemes: Chechen or – mourning clothes, or – false scientist; Russian or.

The basics of adjectives in the Russian language are actively involved in the word-formation process, and the basics of different groups of adjectives are used differently in word formation. Non-derivative and derivative bases of qualitative adjectives are pronounceable for various lexical and grammatical categories of words (nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs), and the bases of relative adjectives, although they participate in the formation of words, are less active. So, they do not form words of some parts of speech at all (for example, verbs). This is undoubtedly due to the differences in semantics between these two classes of adjectives.

Possessive adjectives related to relative adjectives in semantics in a strictly standardized literary language do not participate in word production at all, only in dialects and colloquialisms separate formations of adverbs of the sister type are possible (Bakina, 1968).

The addition of determinative structural types is often characterized by idiomaticity. Idiomaticity is manifested in the fact that the first component – the adjective ceases to be perceived in its original meaning of the attribute, loses the function of definition, organically merging with the second component into a single, semantically, and grammatically undifferentiated whole. The value of the attribute is pushed to the background. The nominative function prevails in addition. The second component of such composites carries the main meaning: Chechen,, Russian., etc.

Structural type NUMERAL+NOUN

In the Nakh and foreign, for example, in the Russian word formation in the composites of the structural type numeral + noun, the first component is usually the quantitative numerals of the first ten: Chechen – colon, – dual power, – tagan, tripod; Rus. and others. At the same time, in the additions of the compared languages, the first component – the numeral usually gives a quantitative and qualitative characteristic of the value of the second component, i.e. it serves as a kind of definition for the second component, clarifies, narrows or expands, in a word, specifies the meaning of the second component. In the structural type under consideration, there are: 1) suffixal additions:,, 2) suffixal: Chechen.,, etc.

A. Suffixal additions.

In the Nakh languages, the suffixless composites of this structural type are divided into full-complex ones: Chechen – nine, – tambourine, – octahedron and incomplete-complex ones: – two-horn pitchforks, "three-horn pitchforks", etc.

In full-complex composites, pure bases act as components (see the examples above).

In incompletely complex composites, the first composite is a numeral with a small formant of the directional case --. Here we observe the fact of semantic convergence of the first and second components; because of long and frequent use, the final consonant -- of the first component performs the function of connection, being historically a fossilized formant of the directional case of the corresponding numeral. Suffixless additions of this type in the Chechen language are not highly productive.

Suffixless additions of the type in question in the Russian word composition can have both nominal and verbal bases as reference. However, examples of complex words with a verbal support base are single: (Ryashentsev, 1969). Examples with the first base – the numeral (, etc.) are very rare.

B. Suffixal additions.

Additions of this type in the Nakhi languages are neologisms that arose during the formation and development of the Chechen literary language mainly as a result of the calcification of the corresponding Russian words: Chechen,,,, and others.

The first components in these additions are the quantitative numerals of the first ten ( – one, – two, in the original case form).

The second reference nominal bases have a suffix design ( – leadership, – power, – temporality, – villager), etc.

The suffix -lla- serves as a means of creating new words with an abstract meaning ( – unity of command, – dual power).

The suffix -huo- is used to form new nouns representing the names of persons ascending to the names of settlements, peoples, professions ( – fellow villager, – of the same age, peer).

Purpose of the Study

The main purpose of this study is the scientific coverage of systemic semantic phenomena in the field of the selected word-formation subsystem of the Chechen language, the phenomenon of internal laws of the system of composite word formation and related laws of semantic changes of derived units and their determining factors, the identification of features of composite word formation common to the Chechen language with the Nakhi languages.

Research Methods

The research methods used in this work are determined by the specifics of the material under study. The classification method, descriptive method, alternative method, modeling method, translation techniques, linguistic experiment and other methods and techniques of linguistic analysis were used in the work, which are widely used by all researchers working with the material of specific languages or language groups.

Findings

There is no need to talk about the prefix-suffix method of word formation in Chechen and other Nakh languages.

We should note that according to Yanko-Trinitskaya (2001), there are relatively few complex verbs in Russian, so the method of formation of complex words can mainly be related to nominal word production.

Nominal composites in the compared languages make up a large category of complex nouns. The components can be nouns, adjectives, numerals, adverbs, verbs, and verbal forms.

According to the method of formation, the composites of the subordinate model in the Chechen language are divided into formed by the addition of nouns by the method of adjunction, i.e., a simple addition of two names, and formed by the addition of names by the method of control.

In the different-structured Chechen and Russian languages, the type of addition of the following structural types is very productive: noun+noun домохозяйка – housewife, Chechen: х1усамнана; adj.+noun правосудие – justice, Chechen: – black wheat; numeral+noun двоевластие – dual power, Chechen:. The basis is that the composite in the compared languages can be used as an independent word.

The supporting components in the form of root morphemes are found only in the Russian addition:, etc., where -o- and -e- are connecting vowels.

This model is not typical for the Nakh languages.

In the Nakh composites, the first components may have case inflections of indirect steps, for example, Chechen,.

Depending on the given linguistic fact, i.e. on the formality or non-formality of the first compo-nent, composites, suffixal and suffixal, in the Nakh word structure are divided into formalized and un-formed.

In the Nakh and foreign languages, the type of addition of an adjective with a noun is also very productive. As the first components in additions of this type, qualitative adjectives are most often used, for example: Chechen – rye.

Relative adjectives can also be used as the first component: Chechen – shoes made of rawhide.

Composites of this type are structurally full–complex, which is due to the peculiarity of the Nakh qualitative adjective – definition, which in its initial form lacks a material indicator of agreement with the definition – noun, although there are some cases when the first components – adjectives (qualitative) are subject to truncation of endings (), etc. (Chokaev, 1970).

In the Russian language, the peculiarity of the use of adjective bases in word production is that in a whole number of word-formation types, the derived word includes only a reduced base, devoid of a suffix (Bakina, 1968). The truncation of the bases is a phenomenon that serves one purpose: to adapt the generating base to the creation of a derived word (Zemskaya, 1973).

In the different-structured Chechen and Russian languages, the structural type numeral+noun is also productive.

In the Nakh and foreign, for example, in the Russian word formation in the composites of the structural type numeral + noun, the first component is usually the number of numerals of the first ten: Chechen – colon, – dual power, – tagan, tripod; Russian. At the same time, in the additions of the compared languages, the first component – the numeral usually gives a quantitative-qualitative characteristic of the value of the second component, i.e. it serves as a kind of definition for the second component, clarifies, narrows or expands, in a word, concretizes the meaning of the second component. In the considered structural type, the following are distinguished: 1) non-suffixal additions: – tambourine, – two-horn pitchfork, – three-horn pitchfork, 2) suffixal: Chechen – fellow villager, – dual power, etc.

Conclusion

The common word-forming properties of the compared Chechen and Russian literary languages are: a) the presence of structural models noun + noun, adjective+ noun, numeral + noun; b) the presence of derivative and non-derivative forming bases; c) the use of word combinations, derived words as motivating elements; d) the possibility of suffixation of derivative and non-derivative bases.

The contrastive features of the compared languages include: a) ways of connecting components in a complex whole: in the Chechen language – without connecting vowels (except for individual cases of the presence of the first component of the case formant in the outcome); in the Russian language, connections are possible with and without an prefix; b) functional capabilities of parts of a complex word: in the Chechen language, almost all structural types of components compound words can be used as independent words, whereas in Russian it is not always possible; c) truncation of the first base of the structural type adjective + noun in the Russian language, whereas additions of this type in the Chechen language are full-syllabic.

References

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Umarovna, S. M., & Musaevna, D. L. (2022). Nominal Composites In Chechen And Russian Languages Of Different Structure. In D. K. Bataev, S. A. Gapurov, A. D. Osmaev, V. K. Akaev, L. M. Idigova, M. R. Ovhadov, A. R. Salgiriev, & M. M. Betilmerzaeva (Eds.), Knowledge, Man and Civilization- ISCKMC 2022, vol 129. European Proceedings of Social and Behavioural Sciences (pp. 1098-1107). European Publisher. https://doi.org/10.15405/epsbs.2022.12.140