The Evaluative Semantics Of Word-Formation Neologisms In The Electronic Media Headlines
Abstract
The article examines the problem of graduality of the media word-formation neologisms’ evaluative semantics, as illustrated by neologisms with negative evaluation. The research hypothesis is that neologisms can express a negative evaluation in an explicit and implicit form, where the parameter of explicitness/implicitness can be expressed to a greater or lesser extent depending on the structural and semantic features of the neologism and the contextual conditions for its use. The aim of the study is to identify the factors that form the explicit or implicit evaluative semantics of neologisms, as well as to construct the model of the neologisms’ evaluative scale based on the parameter of explicitness/implicitness. The research is carried out on the material of the corpus of electronic media headlines with negative evaluative neologisms (650 headlines) collected by the method of continuous sampling and content-analysis. To solve the research problems, a traditional structural and semantic methods of analysis are used in combination with innovative statistical corpus methods and modeling method. As a result of the study, four groups of neologisms (divided into subgroups) were identified and located on the evaluative scale in order of de-intensification (from explicit to implicit) of the negative-evaluative semantics up to its neutralization; the groups that belong to a transition zone of explicit/implicit evaluation were found out.
Keywords: Evaluation, evaluation scale, neologisms, word-formation
Introduction
The modern media discourse is distinguished by the ratio of the open means of influence, having an explicit character, and the hidden ones, having an implicit character and affecting subconscious perception (Klushina, 2014, p. 64). At the same time, the intention to use particular type of influence determines the selection and organization of speech units of various levels, as well as affects the choice of units with explicit or implicit evaluation semantics. The negative evaluation prevails in the modern Russian-language media discourse (Kulikova, 2020), moreover the predominance of the negative evaluation component is also noted in the English-language media discourse, which indicates the global nature of this trend (Bednarek, 2016). One of the relevant means of expressing a negative evaluation is neologisms, which are lexical and word-formational innovations created in usual and non-usual ways (Ratsiburskaya & Solovyeva, 2018).
Problem Statement
Explicit evaluation is a distinctive trait for neologisms containing particular elements with an apparent evaluation mark in their structure. The neologism was classified as containing an explicit evaluation if it was: 1) created on the basis of a lexeme with a lowered stylistic color, or lexeme, in which negative-evaluation semes belong to the nucleus of the semantic structure of the word; 2) created using formants having negative semantics or lowered functional and emotional color. Implicit evaluation is characteristic of the other negative-evaluation neologisms, indirectly indicating the negative nature of the described phenomenon. Implicit evaluation neologisms are neologisms, the evaluation of which is detected from the context in the absence of explicit evaluative-labeled elements of the neologisms’ structure. At the same time, the evaluation of neologisms may be more or less bright, and the form of its expression may be more or less obvious depending on the structural-semantic properties of the neologisms and the conditions of its use.
Research Questions
Discussing lexical means of evaluation expression, researchers note that explicitness/implicitness is not a binary, but gradual degree of information expressiveness (Baranov, 2011, p. 318). However, the manifestation of various degrees of explicitness/implicitness of word-forming units seems to be insufficiently studied. The material of the study was a sample of contexts containing negative-evaluative neologisms in the headlines of electronic media from 2010 to 2020, collected and classified using the content analysis method (the total sample size consists of 650 contexts). The usage of electronic media texts as a source of material is motivated by the increased role of various forms of Internet communication in modern society and by the prospect of using online sources to observe dynamic word-formation processes (Golev & Falomkina, 2020; Petrukhina & Dedova, 2019). Thus, the research questions being solved in this article are:
- determining the structural-semantic and contextual factors, which intensify or de-intensify the evaluative semantics of neologisms;
- constructing the media neologisms’ evaluation scale based on the parameter of explicitness/implicitness;
- detecting the ratio of explicit/implicit evaluative neologisms regarding media discourse.
Purpose of the Study
The hypothesis of the study is that neologisms can express a negative evaluation in an explicit and implicit form, wherein the parameter of explicitness/implicitness can be expressed to a greater or lesser extent, thus the evaluation of neologisms is a scale.
Research Methods
Methods of word-formation analysis, stylistic analysis and discursive analysis were used to identify the specifics of the expression of neologisms’ evaluation semantics and to determine the degree of its explicitness/implicitness. To study the specifics of explicitness/implicitness, it is efficient to combine the achievements of the traditional structural-semantic approach with the methods of qualitative analysis by establishing an analytical framework and modelling (Jiang & Zhang, 2020).
Findings
The factors determining the presence of the neologism’s evaluation semantics and the degree of its explicitness/implicitness are: the semantic-stylistic properties of the producing word (stem), the semantic-stylistic properties of the word-forming formant, the specifics of the syntagmatic combination of the stem and formant; as an additional factor, the peculiarities of the method of word-formation (in particular, the non-usual nature of the word-formation method). These factors of the evaluation forming can serve as a basis for the construction of the neologisms’ evaluation scale. The following groups of neologisms can be distinguished and located in the order of de-intensification of evaluation semantics, from the most obvious form of expression of evaluation semantics to the least obvious.
Group № 1. Neologisms in which the producing stem with negative evaluation semantics and/or connotation is combined with an expressive-labeled formant
Neologisms based on the lexemes with negative semantics and connotations generally express a negative evaluation (if the evaluation is not neutralized due to context), while the evaluation can intensify due to evaluative-labeled affixes. Producing words (stems) with negative evaluation semantics denote socially criticized phenomena and qualities, correlate with denotates negatively marked in the axiological system of native speakers. Expressively colored prefixes- act as an intensifier of negative evaluation, introducing a tone of amplification of the negative quality or phenomenon, which is described by the stem: (), (), (), (). It should be noted that these prefixes outside the context do not have a negative meaning, but are expressive and signify the semantics of amplification, and in the structure of the neologism they are combined with the stems with negative-evaluation semantics. As a result, the neologism generally acquires a tone of intensified negative evaluation.
Thus, such neologisms express an evaluation in the most explicit form, so far as having a high degree of expressiveness due to the additional intensification of evaluation semantics.
Group № 2. Neologisms in which the evaluation-neutral stem is combined with the evaluation-labeled affix
The negative evaluation component of the neologism, which provides the explicit nature of the evaluation, can be formed due to semantics and/or emotional, functional color of the affix. Thus, the suffixes of subjective evaluation act as stylistically marked (Efremov, 2020) and are able to convey the emotional tones of humiliation and neglect. Therefore, in media speech, neologisms with such suffixes act as stylistically marked ones expressing an explicit negative evaluation: (nomination of a with the tone of humiliation), (nomination of a with the tone of humiliation),(nomination of a with the tone of humiliation).
The group of stylistically marked suffixes also include with a pronounced connotative component (Lopatin & Ulukhanov, 2016, p. 700). This suffix remains productive in media word-formation. It is used to create abstract nouns denoting social and common phenomena, ideological currents with a negative color in combination with evaluatively neutral stems. The basis for neologisms with the suffix are:
- Neutral-evaluated names of political movements: liberal'shchina (pejorative nomination of a liberal political movement), oppozitsionshchiina (pejorative nomination of a political opposition movement);
- Neutral-evaluated proper nouns of famous politicians: milonovshchina (dismissive nomination of social phenomena associated with personality of Russian politician V. Milonov), sobyaninshchina (dismissive nomination of social phenomena associated with activity of Russian politician S. Sobyanin), lavrovshchina (dismissive nomination of social phenomena associated with activity of Russian politician S. Lavrov)
- Neutral-evaluated proper nouns of evaluated media figures: kiselevshchina (dismissive nomination of media behavior associated with activity of Russian journalist D. Kiselev), malakhovshchina (dismissive nomination of media behavior associated with activity of Russian TV presenter A. Malachov), solov'yevshchina (dismissive nomination of media behavior associated with activity of Russian journalist V. Solovyov).
The range of evaluative-labeled formants in the modern Russian language is wide, while its composition is actively replenished (Ratsiburskaya et al., 2020), for example, in modern media word-formation the affixoid is in demand with the meaning ‘political scandal caused by any unseemly situation’ (Efremova, 2000): () (Nezavisimaya Gazeta, 25.07.2019) – nomination of the scandal related to the foreign policy of;() (Zavtra, 16.02.2017) – nomination of the scandal related to the corrupt activities of the Governor of Samara region. The affixoid is usually combined with evaluation-neutral stems, mainly proper nouns – names of countries, organizations, public figures involved in the conflict.
In addition to the formants discussed above, the Russian word-formation system contains other evaluatively marked affixes and affixoids that show productivity for the creation of media neologisms, such as: the prefix- (-) with the semantics of inferiority ( – a deputy who does not have the necessary qualities to hold an appointment), the prefixoid- (-), prefixes-,- with the semantics of quasi-statehood (), the prefixoid- with the semantics of drug connection ().
Such neologisms express an evaluation in explicit form due to the evaluation color of the affix.
Group № 3. Neologisms in which an evaluated-labeled producing stem is combined with an evaluation-neutral formant
The negative evaluation semantics and connotation of the stem often acts as an independent factor in the formation of the neologism’s evaluation. Moreover, the brighter the negative evaluation color of a producing word is, the greater the charge of negative expressiveness the neologism acquires. Thus, it is possible to distinguish several subgroups within a given group of neologisms.
Group № 3A
Obscene, invective vocabulary has extremely great potential for negative expressiveness, and neologisms based on such vocabulary act as means of expressing the explicit negative evaluation:(Zavtra, 25.06.2015) – pejorative nomination of. The use of such lexemes in media discourse is a conscious violation of ethical and communicative norms, whilst reflecting the noted increase in the level of speech aggression in public communication when representing political and social conflicts (Sidorov, 2018, p. 310). Also, the evaluation in an explicit form bordering on speech aggression is expressed by neologisms based on lexemes thematically related to taboo spheres:(Zavtra, 29.09.2019) – pejorative nomination is created by referring to the topic of physiological functions.
Group № 3B
The evaluation in a less aggressive, but explicit form is expressed by differential neologisms based on lexemes, the semantics of which have a clear evaluation component due to the modern value system. For example, in media vocabulary, neologisms are created on the basis of negative evaluation lexemes denoting socially criticized phenomena and qualities (– the producing word, denotes deception, dishonest behavior), socially criticized ideological position (the producing worddenotes antisocial ideological position) and also illegal activity ((Nastoyashchee vremya, 30.01.2018) – the producing wordsdenotes illegal act – corruption).
Group № 3C
The negative evaluation is clearly expressed by neologisms created in non-usual ways based on lexemes with negative semantics: «Gorodskiye partizany» protiv «». Mnogiye moskvichi stali sabotirovat' vznosy na kapremont ("Urban partisans" against "". Many Moscowites began to sabotage payments for overhaul) (Novaya Gazeta, 04.03.2016) – contamination of kapremont (overhaul) + khap (colloquially lowered lexeme, denoting the misappropriation of something (Efremova, 2000), i.e. khapuga, khapnut', etc.;. Na «Tol'yattiazote» uchastilis' sluchai gibeli lyudey (Nasha versiya, 16.04.2020) – a substitutive derivation based on the proper name Tol'yattiazot with the replacement of the part with a negative-evaluated word neschast('ye) (misfortune), in this context, indicating the increased frequency of tragical accidents. Thus, the evaluation semantics of the producing stem is expressed in a vivid form due to the non-usual method of creation aimed at increasing the expressiveness of the title and attracting readership (Ratsiburskaya, 2018). However, it should be noted that neologisms created by non-usual methods express an evaluation less explicitly than neologisms of usual forming methods. Some scientists attribute neologisms of non-usual methods to implicit forms of evaluation expression (Klushina, 2008), while noting their bright expressive potential. This is due to the fact that the evaluation elements are contained in the structure of contaminated neologisms in a transformed form (or could be restored from the context), and in order to identify the evaluation color of the neologisms, the reader needs to decipher the structure of the neologisms and interpret the conditions of its use. In addition, the semantics of non-usual neologisms has a greater contextual predicament, which brings this type of neologisms closer to implicit evaluation. Therefore, on the intensity scale of the evaluation expression the neologisms of non-usual forming methods will be located closer to the hidden forms than the neologisms of the usual creation methods.
Group № 3D
It should also be noted that neologisms based on negative evaluation vocabulary express an evaluation in a more or less explicit way depending on how close the evaluation seme is to the core of the semantic structure of the producing word.
For example, the neologism in the title « () (Argumenty nedeli, 29.09.2011) was created in a suffix way from () ‘about the struggle in some influential areas, active and unaffiliated, secretive’ (Ozhegov & Shvedova, 2005), in the media discourse, the lexeme acquires disapproving connotations, since it is often used to describe illegal or unethical political activity. The negative evaluation component refers to the periphery of the lexeme’s semantic structure and is revealed via the context: when describing the political life of society, semes ‘stealth’, ‘secrecy’ can cause negative associations in the reader’s mind; the negative effect is enhanced by combining with a lexemedenoting hidden unseemly actions (Efremova, 2000). The neologism does not transmit a direct indication of the commission of socially criticized activities (like the discussed above), producing lexeme only indirectly indicates the unseemly nature of the actions, therefore such neologisms belong to the implicit type of evaluation.
Thus, implicit evaluation is characteristic of neologisms based on words that indirectly express a negative evaluation due to the certain components of semantics. For example, a negative evaluation in a hidden form is expressed in the text with the heading:() (Novaya Gazeta, 26.02.2014) – neologism is created by compound, the negative component of semantics is created by the producing word(), which has an evaluated-neutral direct meaning (‘premises outside the meeting room (in parliament, at the conference)’) and figurative meaning with negative connotations ‘about informal conversations in knowledgeable political, public circles’ (Ozhegov & Shvedova, 2005). In the context of publication, the neologism in a hidden form indicates the engaged nature of the selection of construction companies, the presence of selfish goals for certain political groups.
Group № 4. Neologisms containing an evaluated-neutral producing stem and an evaluated-neutral formant but acquiring evaluation in context
Neologisms that do not contain evaluation components in their structure are able to acquire a hidden evaluation due to the conditions of use, and the features of the linguistic and extralinguistic context (Toropkina, 2019). For example, neutral lexemes can acquire contextual negative-evaluated meaning in the composition of metaphors:(Under the leadership of the Ministry of Industry and Trade and «Rostec», the United Engine Corporation is “finishing up” Soviet developments. It seems that the answer to the question why Denis Manturov and Sergey Chemezov created the Rostec State Corporation in 2007 does not at all coincide with what is usually publicly declared by them)(Nasha versiya, 03.08.2020) – contamination of lexemes, the producing lexeme () in Russian has a neutral evaluation in the language system, but in this context metaphorically refers to the topic of "money laundering" – illicit activities to replace real illegal sources of money with fictitious legal ones. Evaluation is carried out because of the contextual means in hidden form, associations and subtext.
In modern media speech, expressive neologisms are actively created on the basis of terminological vocabulary, an evaluated-neutral literary vocabulary, which, within the framework of media text, acquires a negative evaluation color due to the metaphorization of its semantics.
In particular, under the influence of extralinguistic factors, such as the current situation of the world pandemic of the COVID-19 virus, such neologisms are becoming relevant which are based on the medical terminology, as well as literary lexemes that semantically correlate with the topic of the spread of the virus and its consequences. At the same time, such vocabulary is used in metaphorical contexts, when the metaphor of the disease is used to covert criticism of social processes. For example, in the headline neologism:() (Ekho Moskvy, 10.04.2020) – (), the producing lexeme () serves as a means of metaphorical negative characterization of the media activities that escalate panic in society. Criticism takes on a personal character in the title: ((Kommersant, 24.02.2020) – the neologism is created by substituting derivation based on with the replacement of the first root with part of the proper name. Thus, lexemes, which do not have an evaluated color within the framework of medical terminology, acquire negative evaluation semantics in the processes of media word-formation, metaphorically denoting harmful, dangerous, rapidly spreading social problems.
Neologisms based on evaluation-neutral elements acquire implicit evaluation in ironic contexts:«spisok milliarderov»: nu, ukrali $100 milliardov, chto takogo? «Normal'nyye rebyata»! (Londongrad "list of billionaires": well, $ 100 billion was stolen, so what? "Normal guys"!) (Komsomolskaya pravda, 05.02.2018) – irony is determined by the communicative inappropriateness of positive-evaluative characteristics (Normal guys) in the publication about financial crimes. At the same time, language game techniques are in demand, creating an ironic tone: Povyshennaya. Chinovniki gotovy sgoret' na rabote, lish' by ikh ne posadili. … Chinovniki poprosili prezidenta poka ne sazhat' ikh, a dat' vozmozhnost' porabotat' nad ustraneniyem posledstviy pozharov (Increased pozharonastoychivost'. Officials are ready to burn at work, if only they are not imprisoned. ... Officials asked the president not to imprison them yet, but to give the opportunity to work on eliminating the consequences of the fires) (Kommersant.ru, 22.04.2015) – the neologism is created by substituting derivation with the replacement of the prefix u- with the prefix na- in an evaluated-neutral producing lexeme pozharostoychivost' (fire resistance), which denotes the word play on the direct meaning of the phraseological unit sgoret' na rabote (burn out at work).
Thus, neologisms created on the basis of evaluation-neutral elements in a certain context could be used as a means of expressing a hidden evaluation.
Conclusion
So, the evaluated semantics of neologisms has a gradual character; the intensity of expressing the evaluated value depends on the structural-semantic properties and conditions of neologisms use.
The model of the neologisms’ evaluation scale
The model of the neologisms’ evaluation scale can be represented as a scale shown in Figure 1:
The maximum degree of evaluation semantics’ expression is achieved by combining several evaluation-forming factors, for example, when the negative evaluative semantics of the stem is intensified by the semantics and/or stylistic color of the formant. In a less intense, but still explicit form, an evaluation of neologism is expressed, when one of the evaluation-forming factors is found: an evaluated-labeled formant or a word-forming stem with negative-evaluated semantics. However, several levels can also be distinguished in the group of neologisms with evaluated-labeled stems: they express the evaluation more or less intensively depending on how close the evaluated seme is to the core of semantics. So, hidden forms of evaluation expression include neologisms, based on lexemes which indirectly indicate the negative nature of the described phenomenon. The minimum degree of evaluation expression is characteristic of neologisms that do not contain evaluated-labeled components in the structure but acquire negative-evaluated color in the context when implementing metaphors, various forms of word play. Such neologisms often express an evaluation in the form of irony.
The model of evaluation in the media discourse in the aspect of the explicitness/implicitness ratio
With the application of quantitative research methods, the ratio of groups of evaluative neologisms was revealed. The quantitative ratio of the identified groups on the studied material of the electronic media headlines corpus is presented in Table 1.
Thus, the ratio of explicit and implicit evaluative means in modern media discourse is observed. The extreme degree of explicitness (intensified negative evaluation) is presented by a small group of neologisms in the researched material, while the groups in the middle part of the evaluation spectrum, as well as neologisms tending to implicitness, are more numerous.
Acknowledgments
The reported study was funded by RFBR, project number 19-312-90005.
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A. Kulikova, V. (2021). The Evaluative Semantics Of Word-Formation Neologisms In The Electronic Media Headlines. In V. M. Shaklein (Ed.), The Russian Language in Modern Scientific and Educational Environment, vol 115. European Proceedings of Social and Behavioural Sciences (pp. 393-403). European Publisher. https://doi.org/10.15405/epsbs.2021.09.43