Virtual Reality Technology For Developing Intercultural Leadership Competence: A Research Proposal

Abstract

Increased globalization requires employees to develop not just technical competencies in their specific disciplines but also intercultural leadership competence, which includes a range of cognitive, affective, and behavioural skills leading to effective and appropriate communication with culturally different others. To date, Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR) have demonstrated potential in their effectiveness for achieving technical learning outcomes by providing an immersive, safe learning environment that is both engaging and personalized. Yet, while learning environments such as VR and AR have created significant interest with much promise to revolutionize learning environments, the adoption of these technologies in non-technical areas is limited. Most approaches to teaching non-technical skills such as intercultural knowledge and competence do not leverage these recent educational advancements but still depend heavily on older technologies based on one-way passive learning environments, including videos and web-based platforms. Therefore, interdisciplinary comparative research in leadership development is needed to examine the effectiveness of existing and emerging learning environments (e.g., AR, VR) on cognitive (knowledge), affective (attitudes) and behavioral (skills) aspects of intercultural competence. In addition, we have identified important methodological gaps in the realm of research in leadership development field that require the field to move beyond self-report approaches by utilizing biometric data. We propose a research project to assess leadership development in an innovative research design that triangulates data from traditional quantitative pre-posttesting with qualitative analysis of learner reflections as well as with data from non-invasive biometric devices.

Keywords: Virtual realityintercultural competenceleadership development

Introduction

Increased globalization requires that employees effectively navigate across cultures and borders to be competitive in international and global environments (Deloitte, 2017; Sorrell, 2016). In recent decades, the low cost of international communication and our ability to automate processes across the globe have pushed the business world to become truly global. As a result, employers increasingly seek workers who can not only accomplish the technical and procedural tasks assigned to them but also appropriately and effectively communicate with individuals across cultural boundaries so that they can coordinate, collaborate, and communicate with employees and clients both locally and across the globe (Banks et al., 2015). Increased globalization in business and trade has led to changes in the skills needed for success in terms of communication and leadership in diverse contexts – what we refer to throughout this proposal as intercultural leadership competence (ILC). The foundations of ILC is intercultural competence, which is the ability to communicate effectively and appropriately in intercultural situations based on one’s intercultural knowledge, skills, and attitudes (Deardorff, 2004). Developing intercultural competence results in an improved understanding of other worldviews and the ability to manage thoughts, emotions, change, and ambiguity in order to effectively build bridges across cultural diversity in organizational settings (Zotzmann, 2015). Although vital in our society today, employees often fail to develop such skills. For example, only 18% of employers believe that graduates are well prepared to work with people from different backgrounds (Hart Research Associates, 2015).

Traditionally, employees have received training and education in intercultural leadership through academic study abroad, co-curricular programs, and coursework in the college or international assignments and travel in the workplace. However, each method has key weaknesses. For example, study abroad programs—arrangements in which students complete part of their degree program through educational activities outside the United States—require significant financial and logistical investments. Additionally, co-curricular programs, activities, and learning experiences that complement what students are learning in school do not present a systematic, targeted learning approach as they are based on voluntary participation. Coursework, which usually includes a number of major, minor, or elective courses that provide content around intercultural areas, typically focuses on cognitive learning, not necessarily behavioral or attitudinal development. Moreover, as with co-curricular opportunities, students can often self-select out of coursework, and those who most need intercultural learning are less likely to willingly engage in such experiences. Workplace training activities typically do not focus on an ILC approach as they either focus on leadership development in general or diversity in particular. Essentially, a key challenge of developing ILC is finding a balance between substantial economic and logistical constraints and demonstrable outcomes of effective student learning based on evidence-based best practices such as experiential and reflective learning, safe learning environment, and individualized feedback on student performance.

A potential solution that may strike this balance is the use of technology-assisted instructional approaches such as video, virtual reality (VR), and augmented reality (AR). Historically, common techniques utilized in intercultural learning have included “group discussion, lectures, case scenarios, clinical experiences, cultural immersion, and presentation by ethnic minority speaker” (Long, 2012, p. 104). While video-based learning has been widely used in higher education and workplace training, it has often been criticized for its passive learning environment with little or no emphasis for learner interactivity (Borgo et al., 2012; Tuong et al., 2014). More recently, with the advent of immersive online learning environments such as augmented reality games, virtual military environments, and immersive second language learning environments, these newer learning aids have demonstrated capacity for technical and social skill development (Monahan et al., 2008; Pana et al., 2006; Rutledge et al., 2008). Based on these advancements, these emerging learning technologies present strong potential to serve as effective learning approaches for promoting all three domains of intercultural competence development including knowledge (cognition), attitudes (affect) and skills (behaviors). Given their demonstrated effectiveness with more technical skills, VR and AR should prove helpful in student mastery of specific key competencies including many that have been linked as important to intercultural competence (Deardorff, 2006): empathy, openness and curiosity. However, comparative evidence of the effectiveness of these different approaches to intercultural competency development learning based on robust research is lacking. Further, there is a gap in the literature on how, and to what extent, ILC development occurs in the new learning technologies of VR and AR relative to the more traditional approach of videos. We seek to understand how the development of intercultural competency transfers from one learning domain to another. In light of this gap we are concerned with the limited research designs that have been used to document intercultural learning in general and competency development in particular. Missing from the literature is a holistic learning approach that moves beyond the cognitive domain to consider affective and psychomotor learning as well (Enger & Lajimodiere, 2011). Likewise, most studies of intercultural curricular effectiveness do not take advantage of technological solutions to measure phenomena; rather, existing work relies heavily on more anecdotal evidence such as time on task and self-report scales as proxies for engagement in learning rather than biological indicators of engagement (Villani et al., 2012). The goal of this proposal research is to compare the effectiveness of these three technology-assisted media (video-based, virtual reality, and augmented reality) for developing intercultural competence. By utilizing data triangulation through robust research methods in quantitative, qualitative, and biometrics, we aim to further advance pedagogical practices while also potentially providing new insights into theoretical underpinnings for the science of learning.

Literature Review and Theoretical Framework

Scholarly literature from several disciplines, including learning science, technology-assisted learning technologies, and intercultural competence provides a solid theoretical basis for this project. We review in this section literature relevant to the design and assessment of learning technologies.

Technology-Assisted Learning Environments

With the advent of technology, learning environments are becoming increasingly technology centric. Although rapid technological advances are often adopted, the implementation and utilization of these new approaches to learning can be slow due to logistical and resource limitations. In addition, the nature of an educational environment, may equate with advances in research also lagging behind the technological innovations. We theorize that the greater immersive nature of VRL and the greater interactive qualities of ARL will enhance learner engagement and thus foster greater achievement of learning outcomes, but more exploratory research is necessary to understand better the relationships between these phenomena and to predict accurately which medium best enhances intercultural competency learning.

Video-based Learning (VBL). The popularity of video-based learning through platforms such as Khan Academy, Lynda, YouTube, and edX has resulted in millions of learning experiences in recent years (Brooks et al., 2011). As widespread adoption of technology has multiplied so has research into video-based learning, learner engagement with video-based learning platforms, and integration of video-based learning into existing structures and courses (Giannakos, 2013). Yousef et al. (2014) conducted a meta-analysis of research related to video-based learning from 2003-2013 and, despite conflicting results, concluded several pertinent points: VBL has the potential to improve learning outcomes, results in higher levels of satisfaction compared to settings without video, and is most-often connected with a more passive teacher-centered approach as opposed to utilizing student-centered learning. Building off previous work into VBL, recent work in the VBL sphere has sought to further improve upon benefits recognized in static VBL settings through interactive VBL applications. For example, Kolas (2015) identified videos which include hyperlinks, interactive 3D-objects, interactive maps, and embedded quizzes as VBL applications which are interactive for students. The use of interactive VBL has demonstrated potential for increasing student engagement (Zhang et al., 2006) but has also been less favorably looked upon by many educators who deem it passive and not engaging (Kolas, 2015).

Virtual Reality-based Learning (VRL)

Virtual Reality (VR) technologies that utilize electronic eyewear to immerse an individual in a computer-simulated environment is considered an emerging tool for providing immersive, engaging and autonomous learning environments for both academic and professional purposes. Recent technological advances have increased the resolution and dramatically reduced the cost of deploying VR material. In fact, the findings of a recent survey on the use of digital technologies to drive digital business transformation indicated that of the 29% of organizations which are using or piloting immersive learning technologies, 40% reported that the tool exceeded their expectations, while 60% reported that the technology performed as expected (Cearley et al., 2017). Two decades ago, VR had to be played on a desktop computer or on custom-built proprietary headsets, however, commercially available VR headsets today are the most commonly used approach to deliver VR material, because they provide the greatest sense of immersion as they replace the real world with the virtual one through complete visual occlusion (see Figure 1 ). These advances mean that VR has rapidly become an inexpensive and viable learning tool in fields such as engineering, medicine, chemistry, and other hard sciences (Clark et al., 2016; Freitas, Rebolledo-Mendez et al., 2006). Similarly, previous studies on VR interventions for intercultural skills have either focused on better second language acquisition (Thorne et al., 2009) or have examined military recruits and personnel, who presumably would have had much more rigor prior intercultural training (Caligiuri et al., 2011). Relatedly, while it has been proposed that VR holds great promise for developing empathy, empirical evidence supporting the claim is virtually non-existent outside of healthcare settings (e.g., Wijma et al., 2018). Although VRL offers the prospect of exponentially increasing the scale of implementation and present the advantages of a safe learning environment for engaging in potentially uncomfortable social interactions, VR as an immersive learning tool needs to be tested for its potential, capacity, and extent in contributing to the achievement of specific learning outcomes related to the development of intercultural competence (Diehl & Prins, 2008; Hickman & Akdere, 2017).

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Augmented Reality-based Learning (ARL)

ARL draws its origins from the mid-twentieth-century in cinematography (Carmigniani et al., 2011), and, with the development of computer technologies more generally, has seen steady rises in usage and implementation (van Krevelen & Poelman, 2010). In 2007, AR was identified as one of the top 10 emerging technologies (Jonietz, 2007), and, according to some researchers, is set to become one of the fundamental user interface paradigms of humankind (Kroeker, 2010). AR is usually defined following the VirtualityContinuum (Milgram & Kishino, 1994), where it resides closer to real-life than pure virtual reality (VR) and, as such, combines aspects, and objects, of both the virtual and real world (see Figure 2 ) (Azuma et al., 2001). AR can be understood as a real-world view that is augmented and enhanced by virtual, computer generated, information (Caligiuri et al., 2011; Klopfer & Squire, 2008), allowing users to have a realtime interaction with virtual creations in 3D space (van Krevelen & Poelman, 2010; Wu et al., 2013). In other words, AR does not replace the real world as VR is purported to do, but, in a way, supplements it through building a “mixed-reality” model (Bower et al., 2014; Chang et al., 2010). In terms of devices and user-interaction, AR is mainly facilitated through two main display types: monitor-based and see-through; presently, these largely include Head Mounted Displays and Handheld Display devices (Kesim & Ozarslan, 2012; Klopfer & Squire, 2008). AR uses different technology that can range from basic hardware, such as video camera, for capturing live images, storage space for virtual objects, a processor powerful enough to build a 3D simulation in real-time, and an interface for interactions with objects—both virtual and real—as well as more complex hardware that includes GPS, WiFi connection, image recognition, and more (Bower et al., 2014).

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Given that this technology allows users to engage with and experience phenomena otherwise not possible (Klopfer & Squire, 2008), AR has had many applications over the last decades, from such fields as manufacturing (Caudell & Mizell, 1992) and medicine (Bajura et al., 1992), to sports and military (Azuma et al., 2001). In recent years, special interest has developed around leveraging AR in educational contexts (Kesim & Ozarslan, 2012; Radu, 2014) because it can benefit learners along a number of dimensions, including learning spatial structure and function, memory retention, language learning, improved collaboration, increased motivation and physical task performance (Radu, 2014). Dede (2009), for example, points out that the immersive side of AR can be leveraged to enhance learning through multiple perspectives, and through situated experience, both important opportunities in the learning process. More specifically, AR has been explored as a tool in technology education, since the ability to create 3D images is especially important in design technology and engineering (Thornton et al., 2012). Further, AR positively affects the motivation of students in STEM education (Restivo et al., 2014; Yoon et al., 2012), especially mathematics (Estapa & Nadolny, 2015). While most of these studies analyze the students’ perspectives, there have also been applications of AR technology that aid in instructors’ formative assessment of students (Holstein et al., 2018; Holstein et al., 2017), that facilitate interaction between students and teachers (Peña-Ríos et al., 2012), and that teach industrial maintenance and assembly tasks in workplace training (Gavish et al., 2015).

A Biometric Profile of Social Competence

Biometrics is defined as the use of distinctive, measurable physical characteristics to describe individuals, which can generally be divided into two groups: those that serve as identifiers of the body (such as fingerprints and retina scanning), and those that pertain to psychophysiological measures of human behavior and psychological state such as eye tracking, facial expression analysis, galvanic skin responses and electroencephalography (Jain & Ross, 2008). In the latter case, biometric tools attempt to classify an individual’s visual attentive process and emotional expression in terms of emotional arousal (intensity) as well as emotional valence (positive versus negative hedonic affect); (Barrett, 2006; Kron et al., 2015; Russell, 1980). Often, a biometric tool (see Figure 3 ) will provide information on one dimension more than another; galvanic skin responses (GSR) and electrocardiography (ECG), for example, are often used as measures of arousal but not valence (Berntson et al., 1997; Boucsein, 1999; De Santos et al., 2011; Torres et al., 2013), while facial Electromyography (EMG) and Facial Emotion Recognition (FER) can provide valenced information but are less likely to provide an accurate measure of intensity, although intensity can contribute to the correct identification of an expression (Balconi et al., 2014). Thus, the use of multiple sensors in a multimodal approach is necessary to provide the most comprehensive profile of an individual’s psychophysiological reaction to stimuli (Balconi et al., 2014; De Santos et al., 2011). Within the context of social interaction, a limitation of conventional self-report methods is that one’s feelings, attitudes and reactions may not be articulated to their fullest extent. This may be due to social desirability bias, language barriers, cultural norms, or inaccurate recall of emotional events. Here, biometrics is best used in conjunction with conventional self-report methods, as physiological responses to stimuli are involuntary and beyond conscious control. Thus, biometrics can provide valuable information as to the emotional and attentive state of the respondent in real-time, without the limitations of language or bias.

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Research Method

The proposed study will be designed as a quasi-experiment to test the effectiveness of technology-assisted learning environments in intercultural development through VBL, VRL, and ARL, each with similar intervention content. Therefore, there will be three treatment groups, each comprised of at least 50 participants. Our independent variables will include demographic variables (gender, race/ethnicity, and language) and personal attributes (motivation to learn, pre-existing levels of intercultural competence—openness, curiosity, and empathy--obtained through pretesting with self-report instruments). Qualitative and biometric data will also be collected and analyzed in triangulation with the quantitative data to present as complete and nuanced a picture of the complex learning processes.

All three sets of simulations in this study will feature similar content, varying primarily in medium of instruction (VBL, VRL, and ARL). The simulation series will immerse learners in an international business case where they develop intercultural knowledge and competence. Within the simulations, learners are responsible for securing a business deal with a Latin American distribution company. In these technology-assisted learning simulations, the participants will complete the simulations on their own, in a safe and replicable learning environment. Importantly, all three technology approaches to teaching and learning being studied in this project differ from each other in the level of interactivity and authenticity provided by the medium, particularly for the VRL and ARL. This is accomplished by immersing learners, giving them first-hand experience of being in an international business setting and providing them with opportunities to interact with their environment in the form of speech and behavior choices to which characters within the simulations react and respond. Additionally, learner choices during the simulation change the future outcomes (i.e., a range of successes or total failure to secure the business deal). In response to stimuli within the simulation, learners choose from a set of behavioral responses that will be designed in consultation with intercultural education, business, and learning science experts to ensure that the choices represent the likely responses from individuals at varying levels of intercultural competence and business acumen.

Conclusion and Discussions

By exploring innovative learning environments for more effective teaching of ILC to STEM students, this research proposal has multiple and far-reaching impacts on industry, scholarship, and society at large. Improved skills and attitudes such as openness and empathy have great potential to positively impact the capacity of intercultural teams in the workplace to leverage their differences for creative problem-solving and innovation, rather than being stymied by an inability to interact successfully with culturally different individuals and groups.

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