Tradition and Modernity in Developing Writing Skills and Technique in Primary School

3.1 Writing- definitions and Features

The written expression skill was defined and described in many different ways, among which:

• according to C. T. Linse, written expression is a "process-result combination: process refers to

the act of gathering information and process them until they are organized in an orderly form, understood

by all readers and the product is a complex one; pupils should know that written expression is the goal of

several steps that make up the process"(Linse, 2005, 98);

• the act of writing is a complex one and does not relate solely to the linguistic competence, but

rather the a competence of the person who writes.

• according to C.B. de Miniac, writing is "a means of expression, an activity that mobilizes the

individual in its singular and affective dimension; writing means, in a certain way, to say, convey, reveal

emotions, feelings, desires or conflicts " (Miniac, 2000, 48);

• any writing is a "structured verbal message", with a well-organized structure, able to conduct

interpersonal communication (Parfene, 1980, 24).

For the teacher, formation of written expression competence consists of teaching pupils to produce

texts in real communication situations, while, for the pupil, it means to acquire a series of strategies,

because writing is not only a language luggage, but it also means reflection, selection and thinking.

Initially, all writing activities were used in schools, especially since it was considered that, in this

way, it would contribute to the "training of pupils for life, i.e. to their social integration and to the

fulfillment of their personality"(Parfene, 1980, 377).

If traditionally, writing represented a final product, without having to focus on the necessary steps

underlying the writing, the only thing to be appreciated being correct writing in terms of grammar and

spelling, legible and accurate, modern approach includes, besides grammatical correctness and creativity,

their own contribution to that text.

In the current context, written expression related to the "communication skill occurs as an act of

production and as a function in the communication act" (Păuș, 2001, 29).

Pamfil (2004) talks about three types of approaches to written expression:

• according to the methodological approach, writing is a very important intellectual activity,

through which pupils have access to the major culture forms; this perspective is aimed at forming the

basic scriptural skill, through which pupils can speak, represent and interpret the world;

• on the basis of expressive approach, writing is a basic activity in the process of personal

development of the pupil; thus, teaching restates its issues, including matters pertaining to the person

performing the action; in this new vision, writing is a creative process;

• socializing approach emphasizes another handwriting function, namely the one of instrument of

integration and of social success.

Creative and authentic written expression is based on a few principles which, if they are complied

with, they will lead to great results:

• written expression approached in terms of communication will focus on interaction; pupils will

work in the spirit of a writing workshop, a place to learn, where real or imaginary experiences are shared,

which they will build based on their knowledge and the linguistic resources available to them;

• written activities should not be isolated and they must be preceded or followed by other

activities: oral communication, reading, understanding of a written or oral message, which, together,

should form the context necessary to achieve this task by pupils and generation of ideas; the ensemble of

activities aimed at mobilizing and developing linguistic, socio-linguistic, discursive knowledge (of the

functioning of texts), referential (of the world) and socio-cultural; they will allow the achievement of

pedagogical objectives: functional, linguistic objectives (grammatical and lexical, as well as linguistic

register), knowledge related to the operation of the texts, but also those related to cultures and societies;

• to create a written production, acoustic or visual supports are also being used: an excerpt from a

movie/cartoon, a picture, a video, a literary text, a series of words or phrases, a song, etc.; through these

methods, appeal should be made to all the pupil' senses, giving him/her more chances to explore his/her

imaginary;

• the teacher would devote more time to listen to, as well as to read the pupils' texts, he will

explain the writing process and will act as a resource person who provides all the necessary indications,

being at the disposal of pupils to clarify any uncertainty;

• regardless of the way a written text will be produced, it will always be presented orally (through

reading), and, then, it may be displayed on a board, along with other texts in the classroom; in this way,

the result of the text composition will be the result of a collective effort, what will motivate the pupils

even more; each pupil will contribute to the of the elaboration of texts, will contribute to the project, as

far as possible and will be improved through the collective success.

Through writing, the child mobilizes "thinking, imagination, self-control, physical effort and

aesthetic commitment. Writing, he/she achieves, in an independent manner, something that would

represent him/her." (Ilica, 2003, 187). Written production enables the pupil to express ideas in writing, in

a clear, precise and orderly manner; thanks to writing activities, the pupil obtains a better usage of

language, organizing, in a better manner, the ideas, thoughts, feelings, before they are communicated

and enriching his/her vocabulary.

An accurate oral utterance is required to draw up a written communication. In this respect, the

primary school is the proper environment to familiarize and initiate pupils with basic elements of

intellectual work and boost their creative capacity.

In the context of a written expression lesson, "the teacher is obliged to strike a balance between the

role of the writing process and the importance of the final result. This is essential because the pupils are

expecting that, in writing, they focus on either spelling and grammar, or on the message they convey

through their knowledge." (Linse, 2005, 98)

In 2007, G. Ferrol și N. Flageul identified the following issues as essential in drafting the written

text: "understanding is what is being asked, reflecting prior to communicate something in writing and

establishing framing limits for the subject in question" (Ferrol, & Flageul, 2007, 13) . In order to facilitate

the process of writing, pupils are offered a few suggestions:

• to understand what they are asked, to rephrase, to sketch out a plan with steps to be followed and

ideas to be presented;

• to read and analyse carefully what they have to solve;

• to avoid the rush looking for ideas;

• to write only about the approached topic, without repeating ideas;

• to avoid unfamiliar concepts;

• to select only the basic and useful information that will appear in the actual writing;

• to incorporate all the elements based on a logical and accurate plan.

However, understanding of the problems, searching and organizing ideas are not enough to produce

a quality written text, "because a wrong utterance cancels all efforts made or even may prevent

communication"(Ferreol, &Flageul, 2007, 46).

3.2 Types of Written Texts for Primary School

Written texts that may be used in the primary school, representing an immediate practical interest

can be grouped according to several criteria. The most appropriate such a classification is made by Olga

Duțu (1997):

a. According to the elaboration methods:

• oral-written texts-- are used throughout the primary school; initially, pupils prepare the oral text

and then they render it in writing;

• collective texts- characterized by a collective activity (participation of all pupils under the

guidance of teachers):

• collectively, the necessary information are collected, title is established, a plan of ideas is

organized and composition is prepared;

• gradually, it is being tracked the increase of the share of individual labour, aimed at the

development of the of written communication skill;

• individual texts-writing activity follows a plan established jointly or individually:

• in the third grade they use preparatory discussions related to the topic approached, following

which the pupils shall determine the plan with the help of the teacher, then, developing each idea, the

composition will shape, first orally and then in writing.

• in fourth grade the pupils work more independently, depending on their skills.

b. According to the method of exposition used:

• narrative texts- approached since the 3rd grade and considered quite easy, whereas pupils are

guided according to the literary works; in the case of these texts also appear some difficulties caused by

the fact that pupils have no knowledge of literary theory;

• descriptive texts- encountered at all classes, when pupils describe an object/an animal/a

character etc.:

up to the third grade, all descriptive texts shall be done orally, he switching to their wording in writing starting in the fourth grade.

these types of compositions have a great importance for the development of written expression by pupils, which waives with stereotype statements in favour of descriptions of their own language means, being able to express their personal feelings, attitudes, ideas, etc.

The authoress also presents other types of written texts, namely a classification into four categories

of compositions that primary pupils elaborates, is based on methods of carrying out the training classes

for writing skills:

•First grade – oral compositions (made in writing only with the help of the teacher) on the basis of

support material, divided, in their turn, into:

• compositions based on paintings, pictures, video documents, cartoons, comics;

• compositions on the basis of known or unknown texts;

• compositions starting from proverbs, sayings, riddles;

• compositions based on the pupils' own drawings;

• compositions based on the pupils' observations, impressions and imagination, but with the help of the teacher;

• compositions by analogy;

• compositions based on a given introduction/ ending;

• compositions with support words/sentences;

• Second grade – free compositions;

• Third grade – compositions- correspondence and special purpose;

• Fourth grade – grammar compositions.

Usual written texts for primary education may also be classified according to other criteria, as well as compositions made according to literary texts:

• plan of ideas;

• abstract;

• narration;

• turning the direct speech into indirect speech and vice versa.

According to the predominating exposition mode, the written texts are:

• narrative;

• description/ portrait type;

• dialogued;

• complex, including exposition modes.

Communicative model didactics proposes strategies for learning of "active handwriting, also

involving playful, non-linguistic tasks, satisfying affective, practical and personal needs of the pupils.

There are several strategies for teaching-learning of writing "(Păuș, 2001, 12):

• Location of writing in relation to other learning activities and determination of appropriate

contents;

• • =• Setting clear, progressive and projective goals;

• =Production of genuine texts;

• =Starting from motivating situations;

• • =• Recurrence to playful tasks during learning.

The objective is to teach pupils production techniques in writing, so that, at the end of the learning

process, they might be able to produce texts for themselves and for others, not just stopping at mastering

the meta-linguistic tools.

The school is designed to help pupils "discover their potential and their school teachers should

encourage self-expression, making themselves, sometimes, available even outside the school

programme." (Băban, 2001, 185).

Torrance (1962) presents some suggestions which may facilitate creativity in writing activities:

• Rewarding creative behaviour;

• Non-imposing their own solutions to pupils;

• Challenging pupils with unusual ideas;

• Offering open assessments, controversial topics, incitating to problematization;

• Encouraging pupils to write down their own ideas in journals, notebooks, etc.

Creativity lies at the basis of all the writing activities carried out in the classroom or at home. Băban

(2001, 185), identified a number of methods to stimulate pupils ' creative behavior:

• ''Brainstorming: it is based on two basic principles: every pupil is able to produce ideas and

quantity develops quality; here are a few requirements: elimination of excessive criticism, encouragement

of the free action of imagination, stimulating as many ideas, taking over and development of ideas

emanating from their colleagues;

• Synectics (= method of analogies) involves several steps: the teacher presents the topic, pupils

restate, in their own words, the task they have to undertake, trying to solve the problem and, finally, they

actually write about the topic approached;

• Philips 6-6: pupils are divided into groups, each group having a moderator and a problem to be

solved; the debate lasts for a few minutes; ideas are noted and the moderator presents the solutions found;

• Frisco Method: it is based on a directed brainstorming, meaning that each pupil has a role

corresponding to a certain feature of his/her personality;

• Method 635 ( = brain writing): groups of six pupils are formed, each pupil in the group writes

down three proposed solutions for the problem proposed, within five minutes, the sheet is passed on in a

clockwise direction and all six sheets pass to each participant in the group, each of them noting 18 ideas.''

(Băban, 2001, 189 - 190)

3.3 Written Expression - from Traditional Approach to Modern Teaching Strategies

Initially, all writing activities were used in schools, especially since it was considered that, in this

way, it would contribute to the ''training of pupils for life, their social integration and to the fulfillment of

their personality.'' (Parfene, 1980, 377)

If traditionally, writing represented a final product, without having to focus on the necessary steps

that lie at the basis of the writing, the only thing to be assessed being accurate writing in terms of

grammar and spelling, legible and neat, modern approach includes, besides grammatical accuracy,

creativity and their own contribution to the text.

According to Moiraud (1979), the pupils, ideally, before starting writing, ask themselves the

following questions and find out as much as possible, appropriate answers to them:

• What should I write on?

• Who is the self speaking? ( pupil/ child / friend)

• Where ? When?

• Why do I write ?

• Who is the addressee? Whom do I write to?

These are some of the basics of writing situation; in other words, the pupil must clarify a few things

before getting the information that will be required in respect of drafting any type of text:

• Who is the transmitter?

• To whom it is addressed what I write?

• What is the purpose of my writing?

• What type of text should I produce?

• What knowledge do I have about the subject in question?

• What other information and tools do I need in my wording?

The production of a written text supposes the crossing of several stages, whose number vary,

depending on the author. Linse ( 2005) proposes the following steps:

• Preparing for writing:

• in the classroom, this phase is reduced to a discussion having the role to clarify the

work task, to provide details and examples;

• it involves an updating of previously acquired knowledge (brainstorming can be

resorted to);

• pupils have the necessary time to think, to gather and organize their ideas;

• it represents the acquisition of as many information, which will be subsequently the

source of inspiration.

• Writing:

• the focus is on pupils ' ability to write, to transpose their thoughts on paper to note

anything related to the subject and ideas will be subsequently rearranged, reworded,

completed;

• matters not related to the subject discussed have to be removed and pupils are free

minded that they should not be placed off-topic;

• practical note: pupils may write each idea separately, so that rearranging of information

may be easier.

• Revision:

• occurs after receiving feedback from the teacher or classmates; children tend to

believe that, once they have noted several ideas, they finished writing, waiting for that

teacher to accept everything they have performed, or he might be the one who corrects

and improve their writing;

• the true role of the teacher is to give advice, explanations, to teach them how to

achieve interesting writings and comprehensible for all;

• comments must aim, in this way, at the content, not grammar and spelling issues and

pupils need to know what ideas and organization they need to keep, but also what should

they change;

• before proposing a writing task, the teacher has the duty to explain exactly what they

expect pupils to achieve in writing.

• Editing / correcting:

• pupils must accept that correction is necessary, although they seems useless to work

again on an task which they believed it was completed;

• correcting pupils' mistakes and helping to eliminate them represents a difficulty for

most of the teachers: on the one hand, teachers should maintain and encourage their

enthusiasm to write and, on the other hand, pupils need to be aware that they can't write

without complying with the rules of spelling, punctuation and grammar.

• Presentation:

• the final version will be rewritten in a more accurate form;

• focus is put on the result of the other steps, in accordance with the standard

conventions of spelling and grammar;

• it is the ultimate form of writing that can be shared to others;

• it is the stage arousing the pupils ' motivation.

Pamfil (2003), proposes an interesting classification of the types of approach to

training/development process and practice of writing:

• Methodical approach:

• planning: knowledge searching and organizing activities;

• textualization: linearization of knowledge and proper drafting;

• review: resumption of writing for improvement and completion of drafting;

• control: evaluative and reflective process on the whole task, also supposing some comebacks on

the writing;

• Expressive approach:

• free writing: writing without any order of ideas generated by the approached topic;

• series of rewritings: successive drafts resulting from the review, planning and textualization;

• correction of final draft and its editing.

• Socializing approach:

• diversifying of contexts for production of written text;

• expanding written text typology;

• centering the writing task on the contents and the consistency of the message;

• doubling the act of writing through a thoughtful movement;

• double assessment of writing: as a process and as a product.