Intellectual Abilities in Top Male Junior Tennis Players

Abstract

Topographical memory, analogical reasoning capacity and attention represent intellectual abilities. Analogical transfer refers to those mental structures which allow us to solve problems based on similarity to already solved problems. Attention does not have an inherent reflective content, being present in all mental functions (perception, representation, thinking etc.). Topographical memory represents a mental blueprint or a spatial map which enable us to appreciate from memory where an object/ a location exists relative to those around it. The scope of our research was to investigate some intellectual dimensions and the sports performance of elite Romanian male tennis players. 12 male athletes have participated in our study aged between 15 and 17 years, ranked in top 15 players in Romania. To solve the research issues, we used: test – the computerized ANALOGIE, TAC and MT tests, within PSISELTEVA tests, developed by RQ Plus, SPSS 20 (for data interpreting) and observation. Using the Spearman correlation, there were highlighted important relations between the analogical reasoning coefficient, performance coefficient (in the case of ANALOGIE test), learning capacity (concentration of attention test - TAC) and sports performance. The results state that improving learning ability (the ability to quickly adapt attention to new visual conditions) and the analogical transfer capacity can positively influence the evolution of tennis players on the court.

Keywords: Analogical transfer, concentration of attention, topographical memory, tennis

Introduction

Analogical transfer, attention and topographical memory represent cognitive (intellectual) abilities.

Researchers have identified multiple mechanisms of transfer, including analogy.

involves three components: finding a prior exemplar, creating a mapping between it and the existing

situation or problem, and then using that mapping to find a relevant solution in the current context

(Nokes, 2009). Chen (2002) asserts that the transferred knowledge are (in generally) declarative

representation, but procedural knowledge can be also transferred (data which refer to execution rules,

motor skills). An analogue source can be similar to another in a number of ways: they may have

similarities on the surface (matching context), in their structure (matching relations between objects),

or both (matching objects and relations). (as a mental function) accompanies mental activity,

being the one that leads to modelling the nervous tone. Attention represents a gateway to other

cognitive (intellectual) processing, being a condition, also, for the developing of motor actions. Before

problems solved, visual-spatial relationships perceived, the stimuli must be attended to. Thus, attention

optimizes the knowledge of the subjective life or of a sector of the reality (Horghidan, Mitrache, &

Tüdös, 2001: 149). Through attention we achieve an important selection of the stimuli. Attention is the

capacity to focus cognitive processing on the relevant target and avoid being distracted by insignificant

stimuli (Segal, & Hersen, 2010: 81).Specialized literature (Spielberger, 2004: 210) state that the

capacity to pay attention to the task in sport is a vital determinant of success.It is known that athletes

differ in terms of attention concentration capacity. Furley et al; (2013)showed that athlete’s capability

to focus attention is based on the situational availability of self-control strength. Regarding the

it requires retaining a certain route for a period of time, supposing intellectual

efficiency, orientation in space, risk taking etc. Topographical memory represents a mental blueprint or

a spatial map which enable us to appreciate from memory where an object/ a location exists relative to

those around it (Mendoza, & Foundas, 2008: 356). Topographical memory appears as spatial

representations (Zlate, 1999: 219). This capacity to manipulate and retain data regarding the visual and

spatial environment is an essential intellectual process in human working memory, playing an

important role in order to adapt to the surroundings (Pearson, Ball, & Smith, 2014). Different

researchers (Epuran, Holdevici, & Tonița, 2001: 83) assert the importance of spatial memory in sport

based on the understanding of the complex situation related to the athlete’s own action.

of the study consists in investigating the analogical transfer capacity, topographical

memory expressed through accuracy and speed in answers, attention concentration (under slow and

under fast speed conditions), and sports performance of elite Romanian junior tennis players.

Materials and methods

Results

Preliminary data analysis (stem and leaf and box-plot charts) has emphasized that, in the case of results registered for ANALOGIE, TAC and MT tests, there were no outliers found. Through the Spearman correlation we checked if there were any relations between the analogical transfer capacity, concentration of attention, topographical memory and the sports performance.

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The analysis of the results indicated in Table 1 emphasizes that there is a negatively significant correlation (-0.588, respectively -0,634) between the analogical reasoning coefficient (it refers to the correctly issued responses and failed responses), the performance coefficient (a qualitative measure statistically calculated by relating the correctly issued responses to the test time) and the performance obtained by the tennis players in competitions (p< 0.05); As to the correlation, a proper indicator for the effect size index is the determination coefficient (r 2 ), whose value is 0.34 (analogical reasoning coefficient), respectively 0.40 (performance coefficient). We can say that 34%, respectively 40% of the variation of the two variables is common, while the remaining is due to other influences. This means that the relation between the analogical reasoning coefficient and the sports performance, respectively the relation between the performance coefficient and the sports performance, is moderate to strong. There is a negatively significant correlation (-0.641) between learning capacity (fast adaptation of attention to new visual circumstances) and the performance obtained by the tennis players in competitions (p< 0.05).

The determination coefficient (r2) has the value 0.41, meaning that the relation between the results

for attention concentration in new perceptual conditions and the performance of the tennis players is

moderate to strong.

Discussions and conclusions

This study demonstrates the existence of different significant statistical correlations between the

results obtained by the tennis players for some intellectual abilities and the sports performance. There

is a negatively significant correlation between learning capacity (attention concentration test) and the

performance obtained by the tennis players in competitions. If the junior tennis players having a

competitive experience between 6 and 9 years register a fast adaptation of attention to new visual

circumstances, this aspect is related to a better performance of the athletes on the tennis court. Through

an adequate mental preparation completed by modelling the competition in training, the tennis players

will improve their ability to give more correct responses when confronted with new perceptual

conditions. Also, there is a negatively significant correlation between the analogical reasoning

coefficient, the performance coefficient (analogical transfer test) and the performance obtained by the

athletes. If the tennis players give more correct and faster responses during tasks demanding analogical

transfer capacity, this aspect is associated with a better performance of the athletes. This can be

explained through the interaction between the transfer mechanisms. Thus, besides the analogical

transfer, research studies discuss about knowledge compilation (Anderson, 1982) and constraint

violation (Ohlsson, Ernst, & Rees, 1992; Ohlsson, 1996). Knowledge compilation (as a transfer

mechanism) will be triggered when the athlete has no accessible exemplar data or when the exemplar

requires important adaptation in order to be applied. This mechanism translates prior declarative

knowledge (advices, tactics or instructions) into a set of procedures that can be used to solve new

situations or problems. For example, a tennis player, knowing about different tactics, can apply them to

a wide variety of game situations. But the athletes must figure out if the implications of the tactics are

suitable for a particular situation or problem encountered. When the declarative instructions or

strategies are no longer applicable to the task, the constraint violation will be triggered - the athletes

have no accessible exemplars and tactical knowledge does not apply.

Constraint violation involves that the athletes use prior knowledge of the domain constraints to

evaluate and correct their task performance. In our case, the tennis players, knowing the constraints in

tennis (avoid hitting the ball towards the opponent, hitting the ball with a particular effect influences its

direction etc.), generate specific procedures - specific movements and executions in given situations.

After a specific movement and execution, the tennis player will evaluate if a constraint has been

violated (for example, the ball has been sent towards the opponent, outside the court or in the net). The

problematic procedure would be revised and a new procedure would be generated and evaluated. After

multiple episodes, eventually the athlete will acquire specific procedures for what move to make in a

specific situation (when the ball comes too fast or very high over the net, having a specific effect etc.).

We often use multiple transfer processes to solve a problem. What is different - the proportion of the

transfer mechanisms which are triggered (Nokes, 2009). The development of analogical reasoning

capacity (a key-component of intelligence – Sternberg, 1977) influences the capacity to transfer data in

various situations that require procedural memory (movements, executions). This may positively

influence the evolution of the players on the tennis court (during the competition), considering the

existence of different situations which require fast and accurate movements and executions. We also

mention Vosniadou and Ortony (1989: 14), who specify that analogy make us more flexible when we

solve problems. Also, reasoning by similarity facilitates the learning of new rules and schemata. This

paper can be considered a starting point for further deeper research – for a better understanding of the

impact of knowledge transfer to sports performance. Our research was limited by the physical and

mental state of the subjects during testing (fatigue, affective-motivational factors), which may cause

variations in the motor responses. Another limitation is constituted by the sample of athletes. The

situation might be different with a sample made up, for example, only of female athletes. Conversation

and observation support the value of our research. The research data will be used by the sport

psychologist and coaches who will design stimulation programs for the characteristics: learning

capacity (in the case of attention concentration), analogical reasoning coefficient and performance

coefficient (the specialist will develop the ability of the athletes to give more correct and faster

responses during tasks demanding analogical transfer). The ANALOGIE, TAC and MT tests may be

used as complementary means of psychological preparation and can provide information with respect

to the analogical transfer capacity, topographical memory and concentration of attention. Also, some of

these cognitive abilities may represent an element of selection of the junior tennis players for the

representative team.

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