Abstract
Decline in cognitive function leads to several diseases and impairments. Findings from literature explain that exercise training may reduce the negative effects and enhance cognition. The review aims to present aerobic and resistance exercise training programs with the most beneficial outcomes regarding enhancement of cognitive function and related diseases. Electronic literature of SPORTDiscus, PubMed, and Google Scholar databases in English language between 2003 and 2015 was used to search for cognitive function in relation to exercise training. A total of 99 abstracts were examined; 43 abstracts were excluded for using animal subjects, derivative data, and languages other than English. A total of 56 articles were fully read; 11 of those were excluded due to lack of evidence, to reach a narrowed outcome. Outcomes indicate that aerobic exercise has more benefits on cognitive function rather than resistance training (e.g. enhancing memory, learning, cognitive speed). On the other hand, combined resistance and aerobic training has better results than aerobic training alone. In addition, exercise training is not only beneficial on cognitive function, but also reduces and prevents related cognitive diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease and Cushing’s syndrome. Several studies have indicated that aerobic exercise training improves cognitive function as well as reduces related cognitive diseases. Further studies are necessary in order to attain sufficient evidence and neglect the conflict regarding the effect of resistance exercise training on cognitive function.
Keywords: Executive function, cognitive function diseases, Alzheimer’s disease, Cushing’s syndrome
Introduction
In order to attain a disease-free and healthy lifestyle, one should engage in regular exercise training.
Exercise training has been reported to decrease all-cause mortality, enhance cardiovascular function,
decrease coronary heart disease, improve cognitive functioning, decrease fall risk and improve
depression (Graff-Radford, 2011). Exercise training is a more structured (and planned) form of
physical activity that is done with a specific purpose in mind. Cognitive function, the process of
thought to conceptualize, recognize, and process stimuli (Buckworth, 2013) is one of the most
important factors that should be maintained and improved to assure healthy and disease-free lifestyle.
The most sensitive brain areas to the impact of glucocorticoid are the hippocampus and
prefrontal cortex; the hippocampus is involved in learning and memory consolidation, whereas
prefrontal cortex involves in executive functioning and emotion regulation. Post age of 30 years old
leads to decline in cognitive processes due to structural decline within the frontal, parietal and temporal
lobes of the brain. In addition, total brain volume is reduced by approximately 5% per decade after the
age of 40 (Park & Reuter-Lorenz, 2009).
What are the benefits of aerobic and resistance exercise training on cognitive function, and which
training program is better to enhance cognitive function and attain promising results to prevent from
related cognitive function diseases?
Materials and methods
Electronic literature of SPORTDiscus, PubMed, and Google Scholar databases in English language
between 2003 and 2015 were used to search for cognitive function in relation to exercise training.
When using these databases, relevant keywords were used to refine the search and narrow down the
topics. The main keywords used while searching were: cognitive function, executive function, aerobic
exercise, resistance training, cognitive function diseases, benefits, combined training, exercise effect,
intensity, duration, and training program. A total of 99 abstracts were examined; 43 abstracts were
excluded for using animal subjects, derivative data, and languages other than English. A total of 56
articles were fully read; 11 of those were excluded due to lack of evidence, to reach a narrowed
outcome of 45 articles.
Results
3.1. Aerobic exercise
Aerobic exercise training has been proven by literature to have an extreme positive effect on
cognitive and brain function. Several previous researchers examined the benefits of aerobic training on
cognitive function in all different age categories (children, adults, and elderly), regardless of gender.
Aerobic exercise enhances overall cognitive function through improving memory, selective and
divided attention, learning, cognitive capacity and flexibility, cognitive speed, planning, inhabitation,
problem solving, decision making, concentration, and processing speed (Hillman et al., 2009; Ke et al.,
2011; Liu-Ambrose et al., 2010; Man, Tsang, & Hui-Chan, 2010; Scherder et al., 2010; Smith et al.,
2010; Van der Borght et al., 2007; Teixeira et al., 2012). Furthermore, aerobic exercise training
enhances cerebral blood flow, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), cerebral structure, increases
development factor inflection, vascularization, cerebral electrical activity and neurotransmitter
secretion, in addition to reduction in memory loss, brain volume loss, and neural apoptosis (Erickson et
al., 2009, 2011; Flöel et al., 2010; Hillman et al., 2009; McAuley et al., 2011; Nation et al., 2011;
Colcombe et al., 2006; Swain et al., 2003; Vaynman & Gomez-Pinilla, 2004).
Even though aerobic exercise is beneficial on cognitive function, it can only deliver affective
outcomes by managing the intensity, duration, and frequency of the training program. Moreover,
moderate-intensity aerobic exercise provides more effective and beneficial results on cognitive
function (Magnan, Kwan, & Bryan, 2013). Previous authors suggest that aerobic exercise intensity
effects cognitive function in the inverted-U shape, where moderate-intensity exercise improves
cognitive function, whereas high-intensity exercise impairs cognitive function (Kashihara et al., 2009).
Recently, Alves et al. (2014) assessed the effect of high-intensity interval aerobic training (HIIT = 90%
HRmax) on cognitive function (selective attention, short-term memory) and showed an improvement in
selective attention and a decrease in short-term memory. Labelle et al. (2014) also assessed the effect
of exercise intensity on executive control (processing speed, perceptual abilities, short-term and
working memory, cognitive flexibility, cognitive activity) for both young (20-29 years) and elderly
(60-70 years). The results showed improvement of 40 to 60% in PPO (Peak Power Output), while there
was an increased rate of error between 60 to 80% of PPO, meaning that low- to moderate-intensity
aerobic exercise training is better and more beneficial on cognitive function rather than submaximal
exercise training intensity. Finally, Hawkes, Manselle and Woollacott (2014) reported that aerobic
exercise training 30 min/session, three times/week, showed improvement in cognitive function
compared to sedentary through an increase in switch reaction time, percent local switch costs, P3b
switch amplitude, and P3b switch amplitude. Thai Chi, meditation, and exercise may provide better
results than aerobic training alone, whereas the Thai Chi group showed better results on percent local
switch costs and P3b switch amplitudes rather than the aerobic group. Moreover, the meditation group
showed significant results compared to the sedentary group on SwRT (Switch reaction time), SCosts
(Percent local switch costs), P3b Amp (P3b switch amplitude), and P3b Lat (P3b switch latency), while
the aerobic group showed better results than the sedentary group but not as much as the meditation
group.
3.2. Resistance exercise training
Opposite to aerobic training, there is no sufficient number of research articles provided by literature
that studies the benefits of resistance exercise training on cognitive function. Regardless of research
articles limited in number, the few existing studies (Lachman et al., 2006; Liu-Ambrose et al., 2010;
Pontifex et al., 2009) reported an enhancement in brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF),
epinephrine, and norepinephrine, in addition to improvement of speed, reaction time, occupied recall
duration, reaction inhibition, memory, precision, and learning competence during and following
resistance training.
Alongside the benefits of resistance training on cognitive function mentioned by the literature, in
order to attain those benefits one should work with the intensity of 60 to 80% of 1RM, two sets with
seven repetitions on each set followed by a 2-minute rest between each set, at least twice/week for 12
months working on the major muscle groups (Liu-Ambrose et al., 2010). Resistance training with an
intensity of 80% 1RM is more beneficial on cognitive function rather than 50% of 1RM (Cassilhas et
al., 2007).
3.3. Exercise and related cognitive function diseases
Exercise training improves cognitive function by enhancing memory recall where memory loss is
the main factor influencing Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Physical activity can improve balance, stride
length, motor sequencing and performance of activities of daily living for people that suffer from AD.
Additionally, it improves cognitive abilities and enhances mood (Faulk et al., 2014). Mild cognitive
impairment (MCI) signals increase the risk of having AD, while engaging in moderate-intensity
exercise training for 150 min/week will enhance cognitive function impairments and decrease the
likability of attaining AD through improving cardiovascular fitness by about 10%, memory
performance and neural efficiency while engaged in memory retrieval tasks (Blake, 2013).
Alongside AD, Cushing’s syndrome, which indicates the exposure of high amount of cortisol, also
decreases one’s cognitive function. The prolonged exposure to cortisol leads to a reduction in
hippocampal neurogenesis, hippocampal atrophy and memory impairment, which can be monitored
easily through exercise training (Pruessne et al., 2007). Alderman, Olson and Mattina (2014)
mentioned that engaging in aerobic exercise training (such as cycling or fast walking) 5 days/week, at
50-60% VO2max intensity, 30 min/day for 6 months, improved cognitive function in patients with Cushing’s syndrome.
Discussions and conclusions
One can benefit from aerobic training by improving overall cognitive function, given that aerobic
training enhances memory, selective and divided attention, learning, cognitive capacity and flexibility,
cognitive speed, planning, inhabitation, problem solving, decision making, concentration, and
processing speed. Even though literature suggests that resistance training improves cognitive function
by enhancing brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), epinephrine, and norepinephrine, as well as
the speed, reaction time, occupied recall duration, reaction inhibition, memory, precision, and learning
competence, other studies showed no benefits on cognitive function following resistance training
(Kimura et al., 2010; Komulainen et al., 2010).
Some of the limitations in these studies could be that they combine resistance training with other
routines such as balance and meditation, which increases the error and decreases the sufficient
evidence; in addition, the intensity and duration of the training programs are not the same through these
studies. Further studies should be done in order to attain sufficient evidence and neglect the conflict
between these studies. Exercise training, whether aerobic or resistance training, has beneficial effects
on both physiological and psychological factors. By improving these factors, exercise training prevents
from several diseases, and most importantly which was discussed in this paper, exercise training
prevents from related cognitive diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease and Cushing’s syndrome.
In addition to the benefits of aerobic and resistance exercise training which were mentioned,
individuals who participate in combined training have greater benefits than those who only participate
in aerobic training, where it can be due to more assorted appearance of cognitive developments
retrieved from benefits of both training conditions (Colcombe &Kramer, 2003).
References
Alderman, B. L., Olson, R. L., & Mattina, D. M. (2014). Cognitive function during low-intensity walking: A
test of the treadmill workstation. J Phys Act Health, 11(4), 752-758.
Alves, C. R., Tessaro, V. H., Teixeira, L. C., Murakava, K., Roschel, H., … & Takito, M. Y. (2014).
Influence of acute high-intensity aerobic interval exercise bout on selective attention and short-term memory tasks. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 118(1), 63-72.
Blake, K. (2013). Exercise may be the best medicine for Alzheimer’s. Journal on Active Aging, 12(5), 19.
Buckworth, J., Dishman, R., O’Connor, P., & Tomporowski, P. (2013). Exercise Psychology (2nd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Cassilhas, R. C., Viana, V. A., Grassmann, V., Santos, R. T., Santos, R. F., … & Mello, M. T. (2007). The impact of resistance exercise on the cognitive function of the elderly. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 39(8), 1401-1407. PubMed doi: 10.1249/mss.0b013e318060111f.
Colcombe, S. J., Erickson, K. I., Scalf, P. E., Kim, J. S., Prakash, R., … & Kramer, A. F. (2006). Aerobic exercise training increases brain volume in aging humans. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci., 61(11), 1166-1170.
Colcombe, S., & Kramer, A. F. (2003). Fitness effects on the cognitive function of older adults: A meta-analytic study. Psychological Science, 14(2), 125-130. PubMed doi: 10.Il l1/1467-928O.tOl-1-014.30.
Erickson, K. I., Prakash, R. S., Voss, M. W., Chaddock, L., Hu, L., … & Kramer, A. F. (2009). Aerobic fitness is associated with hippocampal volume in elderly humans. Hippocampus, 19, 1030-1039. PubMed doi: 10.1002/hipo.20547.
Erickson, K. I., Voss, M. W., Prakash, R. S., Basak, C., Szabo, A., … & Kramer, A. F. (2011). Exercise training increases size of hippocampus and improves memory. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108(7), 3017-3022. PubMed doi: 10.1073/pnas.1015950108.
Faulk, S., Edwards, L., Sumrall, K., Shelton, T., Esalomi, T., … & Dolbow, D. R. (2014). Benefits of physical activity on Alzheimer’s disease: A literature review. Clinical Kinesiology, 68(3), 19-24. Flöel, A., Ruscheweyh, R., Kruger, K., Willemer, C., Winter, B., … & Knecht, S. (2010). Physical activity and memory functions: Are neurotrophins and cerebral gray matter volume the missing link? Neuroimage, 49(3), 2756-2763. PubMed doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.10.04.
Graff-Radford, N. R. (2011). Can aerobic exercise protect against dementia? Alzheimer’s Res Ther., 3(1).
PubMed doi: 10.1186/alzrt65.
Hawkes, T. D., Manselle, W., & Woollacott, M. H. (2014). Tai Chi and meditation-plus-exercise benefit neural substrates of executive function: A cross-sectional, controlled study. Journal of Complementary and Integrative Medicine, 11(4), 279-288.
Hillman, C. H., Pontifex, M. B., Raine, L. B., Castelli, D. M., Hall, E. E., & Kramer, A. F. (2009). The effect of acute treadmill walking on cognitive control and academic achievement in preadolescent children. Neuroscience, 159(3), 1044-1054. PubMed doi: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.01.057.
Kashihara, K., Maruyama, T., Murota, M., & Nakahara, Y. (2009). Positive effects of acute and moderate physical exercise on cognitive function. Journal of Physiological Anthropology, 28(4), 155-164. PubMed doi: 10.2114/jpa2.28.155.
Ke, H. C., Huang, H. J., Liang, K. C., & Hsieh-Li, H. M. (2011). Selective improvement of cognitive function in adult and aged APP/PSl transgenic mice by continuous non-shock treadmill exercise. Brain Res., 1403, 1-11. PubMed doi: 10.1016/j.brainres.2011.05.056.
Kimura, K., Obuchi, S., Arai, T., Nagasawa, H., Shiba, Y., … & Kojima, M. (2010). The influence of short-term strength training on health-related quality of life and executive cognitive function. Journal of Physiological Anthropology, 29(3), 95-101. PubMed doi: 10.2114/jpa2.29.95.
Komulainen, P., Kivipelto, M., Lakka, T. A., Savonen, K., Hassinen, M., … & Rauramaa, R. (2010).
Exercise, fitness and cognition – A randomized controlled trial in older individuals: The DR’s EXTRA study. European Geriatric Medicine, 1(5), 266-272. PubMed doi:10.1016/j.eurger.2010.08.001.
Labelle, V., Bosquet, L., Mekary, S., Vu, T. T., Smilovitch, M., & Bherer, L. (2014). Fitness level moderates executive control disruption during exercise regardless of age. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 36(3), 258-270.
Lachman, M. E., Neupert, S. D., Bertrand, R., & Jette, A. M. (2006). The effects of strength training on memory in older adults. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 14(1), 59-73.
Liu-Ambrose, T., Nagamatsu, L. S., Graf, P., Beattie, B. L., Ashe, M. C., & Handy, T. C. (2010). Resistance training and executive functions: A 12-month randomized controlled trial. Archives of Internal Medicine, 170(2), 170-178. PubMed doi: 10.1001/archintemmed.2009.494.
Magnan, R. E., Kwan, B. M., & Bryan, A. D. (2013). Effects of current physical activity on affective response to exercise: Physical and social-cognitive mechanisms. Psychol Health, 28(4), 418-433. PubMed doi: 10.1080/08870446.2012.733704.
Man, D. W., Tsang, W. W., & Hui-Chan, C. W. (2010). Do older T’ai Chi practitioners have better attention and memory function? Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 16(12), 1259-1264. PubMed doi: 10.1089/acm.2009.0462.
McAuley, E., Szabo, A. N., Mailey, E. L., Erickson, K. I., Voss, M., … & Kramer, A. F. (2011). Non-exercise estimated cardiorespiratory fitness: Associations with brain structure, cognition, and memory complaints in older adults. Mental Health and Physical Activity, 4(1), 5-11. PubMed doi: 10.1016/j.mhpa.201I.01.001.
Nation, D. A., Hong, S., Jak, A. J., Delano-Wood, L., Mills, P. J., … & Dimsdale, J. E. (2011). Stress, exercise and Alzheimer’s disease: A neurovascular pathway. Med Hypotheses, 76(6), 847-854. PubMed doi: 10.10f6/j.mehy.2011.02.034.
Park, D. C., & Reuter-Lorenz, P. (2009). The adaptive brain: Aging and neurocognitive scaffolding. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 173-196. PubMed doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093656.
Pontifex, M. B., Hillman, C. H., Femhall, B., Thompson, K. M., & Valentini, T. A. (2009). The effect of acute aerobic and resistance exercise on working memory. Medicine and Science in Sport and Exercise, 41(4), 927-934. PubMed doi: 10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181907d69.
Pruessner, M., Pruessner, J. C., Hellhammer, D. H., Bruce Pike, G., & Lupien, S. J. (2007). The associations among hippocampal volume, cortisol reactivity, and memory performance in healthy young men. Psychiatry Res., 155(1), 1-10.
Scherder, E. J., Eggermont, L. H., Geuze, R. H., Vis, J., & Verkerke, G. J. (2010). Quadriceps strength and executive functions in older women. American Journal of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, 89(6), 458-463. PubMed doi: 10.1097/PHM.0b013e3181d3e9f6.
Smith, P. J., Blumenthal, J. A., Hoffman, B. M., Cooper, H., Strauman, T. A., … & Sherwood, A. (2010).
Aerobic exercise and neurocognitive performance: A meta-analytic review of randomized controlled trials. Psychosom Med., 72(3), 239-252. PubMed doi: 10.1097/PSY.0b013e3l81dl4633.
Swain, R. A., Harris, A. B., Wiener, E. C., Dutka, M. V., Morris, H. D., … & Greenough, W. T. (2003).
Prolonged exercise induces angiogenesis and increases cerebral blood volume in primary motor cortex of the rat. Neuroscience, 117(4), 1037-1046.
Teixeira, C. V., Gobbi, L. T., Corazza, D. I., Stella, F., Costa, J. L., & Gobbi, S. (2012). Non-pharmacological interventions on cognitive functions in older people with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 54(1), 175-180. PubMed doi: 10.1016/j.archger.2011.02.014.
Van der Borght, K., Havekes, R., Bos, T., Eggen, B. J., & Van der Zee, E. A. (2007). Exercise improves memory acquisition and retrieval in the Y-maze task: Relationship with hippocampal neurogenesis. Behavioural Neuroscience, 121(2), 324-334.
Vaynman, S., Ying, Z., & Gomez-Pinilla, F. (2004). Hippocampal BDNF mediates the efficacy of exercise on synaptic plasticity and cognition. Eur J Neurosci., 20(10), 2580-2590.
Copyright information
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
About this article
Publication Date
10 June 2016
Article Doi
eBook ISBN
978-1-80296-010-5
Publisher
Future Academy
Volume
11
Print ISBN (optional)
-
Edition Number
1st Edition
Pages
1-509
Subjects
Sports, sport science, physical education
Cite this article as:
Ouattas, A., Haddad, M., Riahi, M. A., Paunescu, M., & Goebel, R. (2016). Aerobic or Resistance Exercise Training to Improve Cognitive Function? Short Review . In V. Grigore, M. Stanescu, & M. Paunescu (Eds.), Physical Education, Sport and Kinetotherapy - ICPESK 2015, vol 11. European Proceedings of Social and Behavioural Sciences (pp. 90-95). Future Academy. https://doi.org/10.15405/epsbs.2016.06.13