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The Factorial Structure Of The Phonological Awareness Construct. A Qualitative Review

Table 1: Author(s), year, number of factors, factor structure, sample size, sample characteristics, and language

Study Year Number of factors Factor structure Sample size(N) Sample characteristics (Age and grade level) Language
1.Stanovich, Cunningham, & Cramer 1984 1 - 49 Mage = 6 yrs. and 2 mths. (SD=4.4 mths)Kindergarten English
2.Lundberg, Frost, & Petersen 1988 2 Word and syllable awareness and phoneme awareness 235 (EG)155 (CG) Mage= 6 yrs. oldKindergarten Danish
3.Yopp 1988 2 Phonemic awareness and deletion 96 Mage= 5 yrs. and 10 mths.Kindergarten English
4. Wagner, Torgesen, Laughon, Simmons, & Rashotte 1993 2 Analytical and synthetic factor for both kindergarten and second grade samples 95 (k)89 (2nd) Mage= 5 yrs. and 11 mths. (k)Mage= 8 yrs. and 1 mth.Kindergarten and 2nd grade English
5. Stahl & Murray 1994 1 - 11352 (k)61 (1st) Kindergarten and 1st grade English
6. Carrillo 1994 2 Sensitivity to phonological similarities and segmental awareness/ holistic and analytic awareness 12068 (k)52 (1st) Mage= 5 yrs. and 10 mths. (k)Mage= 6 yrs. and 10 mths. (1st grade)Kindergarten and 1st grade Spanish
7. Høien,Lundberg, Stanovich, & Bjaalid 1995 3 Phoneme factor, syllable factor and a rhyme factor 128 (Study1)1509 (Study 2) Age range (k)= 6 yrs. and 5 mths. to 7 yrs. and 5 mths.)Age range (1st) = 7 yrs. and 4 mths. to 8 yrs. and 4 mths.Kindergarten and 1st grade Norwegian
8.Muter, Hulme, Snowling, & Taylor 1997 2 Rhyme and segmentation 38 Age range= 3 yrs. to 4 yrs. and 9 mths.Preschool English
9. Lonigan, Burgess, Anthony, & Barker 1998 2 (3- and 4-year-olds)1 (5-year-olds) *Oddity Tasks and Non-oddity Tasks 238 Age range= 2 yrs. and 1 mth. and 6 yrs. and 10 mths.Mage= 50.4 mths.)Preschool English
10.Schatschneider, Francis, Foorman, Fletcher, & Mehta 1999 1 - 945(315/grade) Mean age:Mage= 5 yrs. and 8 mths. (k)Mage= 6 yrs. and 9 mths. (1st)Mage= 8 yrs. (2nd)Kindergarten to Second Grade English
11. de Jong & der Leij 1999 1 - 166 Mage = 5 yrs. and 7 mths. (SD= 2,7 mths.)Second year of kindergarten Dutch
12.Anthony, Lonigan, Burgess, Driscoll, Phillips, & Cantor 2002 1 for both age groups - 258 Mage = 39.43mths. (N=109)Mage = 56. 55mths. (N= 149)Preschool English
13.Van Bon & van Leeuwe 2003 1 - 171 Mage =74 mths. (k)Mage =84 mths. (1st) Dutch
14. Runge & Watkins 2006 2 Phonological awareness and one for rhyme 161 Mage = 75.5 mths.Kindergarten English
15.Vloedgraven and Verhoeven 2007 1 - 172 (k)173 (1st) Mage = 6 yrs. and 1 mth. (k)Mage =7 yrs. and 1 mth. (1st) Dutch
16. Papadopoulos, Spanoudis, & Kendeou 2009 1 - 280 Mage = 5 yrs. and 8 mths. (first testing) (k)Mage =6 yrs. and 6 mths. (Second testing) (1st grade) Greek
17. Mott & Rutherford 2012 1 - 333 Pre-K, K, and Grades 1 and 2 English
18. Godoy & Cogo-Moreira 2015 3 segmentation, CVC deletion, CCV deletion 176 Mage= 9.3 yrs.1st through 5th grade Brazilian Portuguese
19. Wolff & Gustafsson* 2015 - a general phonological awareness factor and 4 residual factors representing the processing and linguistic complexity factors 364 Mage= 4 yrs. and 1 mth.Preschool Swedish
20. Santos & Lima 2017 3 Factors relating to sound position (initial, median, final) 510 Mage= 8.4 yrs2nd and 6th grade students Brazilian Portuguese
21. Germano, de C. Cesar, & Capellini 2017 2 The PA measures loaded on two factors: measures of rhyme, alliteration, and letter naming; separately measures of phoneme analysis and synthesis 149 Age range= 6yrs.- 6 yrs. and 11 mths.1st grade Brazilian Portuguese
22. Meira, Cadime, & Viana 2018 3 syllable, rhyme and phonemic awareness 256 Mage=66.37 mths.Last year of preschool* Portuguese
23. Milankov, Golubović, Krstić, & Golubović 2021 4 stylistic awareness (syllable), advanced awareness, initial phoneme awareness, phoneme segmentation 689 Mage=101.59 mths.Grade 1 through Grade 3 Serbian
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